COGNITIVE AND NON COGNITIVE CORRELATES OF STUDENTS’ INTEREST IN SCIENCE TECHNOLOGY AND MATHEMATICS (STM)-BASED CAREERS

ABSTRACT

The study investigated Cognitive and Non Cognitive Correlates of Students Interest in STM- Based Careers. The main purpose was to find out how achievement in Biology, Chemistry, Physics and Mathematics (cognitive variables), gender and school types (non cognitive variables) relate with interest in STM-based careers. Six research questions and six null hypotheses guided the study. The study adopted co-relational survey design. The population of the study was 4859 SS1 students from 47 government secondary schools in Obollo Education zone of Enugu State. Proportionate stratified random sampling technique was used to obtain a sample size of 710 comprising 380 males and 330 females. 363 students were from co-educational schools while 347 students were from single sex schools. Data were collected using STM-based Career Interest inventory (SCAII) with an internal consistency estimate of 0.90 and students’ result in Biology, Chemistry, Physics and Mathematics at internal Examination. Data collected were analysed using Pearson product moment correlation, Mean and standard deviation, Regression analysis and t-test at 0.05 level of significance. Results revealed significant correlation between students’ achievement in Biology, Chemistry, Physics and Mathematics, and interest in STM-based careers, Mathematics had lowest correlation value. Result also showed that there was no gender difference in students’ interest in STM-based career. Single sex schools students had higher interest in STM-based careers than their co-educational counterparts. Based on the findings, it was recommended that the government, parents, text book writers, science teachers and students should intensify their efforts towards improving achievement in Biology, Chemistry, Physics and Mathematics as this will in turn predict students interest in STM-based careers. Also, Science teachers should implement Single sex classes or group work within coeducational schools when necessary. Finally, Science teachers should infuse STM career awareness and interest creation in the instructional plan and delivery especially in Mathematics.

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

Background to the Study

School environment  is a place where students are exposed to  different  forms of knowledge, skills and competencies. These knowledge, skills and competencies enable them to  fit  into  different  professions  or  careers  in  the  society.  Careers  are  occupations  or professions which require special trainings and are followed as ones lifework. Careers also include work, learning and life roles throughout ones active days of life. There are different subjects in the school that can enable students to acquire different careers. For instance, we have Science, Technology and Mathematics (STM)-based careers. Science, Technology and Mathematics  (STM)-based  careers  refer  to  occupations,  works or  professions under  the umbrella  of Science,  Technology and  Mathematics.  Professionals in STM-based careers include Doctors, Nurses, Engineers, Laboratory Scientists, Computer Scientists and Technology Professionals.

These professionals are indispensible in economic growth and development. This is because  advancement  in  science  and  technology  which  is  one  of  the  most  important indicators of economic growth and development is a product of Science Technology and Mathematics (STM) workforce. Policy makers and scholars posit that Science, Technology, and Mathematics (STM)-based careers and occupations are among the fastest growing, the most critical and influential in driving economic growth and innovation (Thomasian, 2011; Gonzalez and Kuenzi, 2012). Raising the number of students interested in pursuing STM- based careers are critical to economic prosperity of every nation (Thomasian, 2011). According  to  Wyss,  Heulskamp  and  Seibert  (2012),  professionals  in  STM  have  the capabilities  of  inventing  new  technology  in  Medicine,  Agriculture,  computer  science,

transportation and in solving ecological problems. Hence those nations with high skilled populace in STM are on the fore-front.

Nwachukwu (2009) noted that it is difficult to find large number of individuals with such transferable skills in Nigeria. Omosewo, Olorundare, Abimbola and Upali (n.d), attributed the current situation to non-commitment of the system to the development of local human potentials and resources in the environment.  In addition, Burke as cited in Henman (2010) noted that one of the problems affecting the STM workforce is that many STM professionals and workers are nearing retirement. To ensure sustainable supply of labour in STM, more youths should be prepared to fill the positions in due course. The situation calls for more concerted efforts towards raising the number of students interested in pursuing STM-based careers. Hence, studies on students’ interest in STM-based careers are crucial as Nigeria seeks to improve her global economic competitiveness.

Interest refers to an affinity, preference or an inclination towards an event, set of activities or object. According to Hidi and Renninger (2006), interest is the psychological state of engaging or the predisposition to re-engage with particular classes of objects, events or ideas over time. Hidi and Reminger identified four phases of interest development namely: triggered situational interest, maintained situational interest, emerging individual interest and well-developed individual interest. Situational interest is a spontaneous, temporary and fluctuating feeling of curiosity in response to specific learning experience. A well-developed individual interest is a stable and enduring predisposition to engage with particular classes of content over time. People typically develop situational interest first, and as more experiences initiate situational interest, it can evolve through maintained situational interest, emerging individual interest to  a well-developed  individual interest or long-term personal interest. Long-term personal interest in STM-based careers is the focus of the present study.

Interest is one of the most important determinants of the choice of school subjects and  for the  recruitment  into  science  and  technology studies and  careers  (Schreiner  and Sjøberg, 2004). Students tend to pursue and complete careers that they have interest in. They will endure all odds and explore all possibilities to attaining their career goals if they have interest. In the same way, they will succumb to obstacles and quit their career pursuits if they lack interest in such careers.

In Nigeria, several research studies have been conducted on interest. However, most of theses studies investigated interest as predictor of students’ enrolment, perception and achievement, in some STM subjects. Specifically, Aina and Adedo (2013) reported that low students’ interest and lack of motivation are among the cause of low enrolment in science in secondary schools. Ezenwani and Atomatofa (2012) reported that 40.6% of students studying sciences because of personal interest had better perception of sciences than 32.7%, 20.6% and

6.1%, influenced to study science by parental, teacher and gender factors respectively. Adodo and Gbore (2012) reported that science interest predicted students’ performance in their different ability levels. This implies that students with high interests in STM subjects tend to achieve  high  in  the  subjects.  However,  high  achievement  in  these  subjects  may  not necessarily translate to students’ interest in and subsequent pursuance of careers in STM.

Interests in individual STM subjects is like the fluctuating situational interest which may either develop to long-term personal interest or fade along the line. In other words, interest in STM subjects may differ from interest in STM–based careers. A student may get interested in Biology or Chemistry because of teacher factor and achieve high in the subject and at the same time lack interest in Biology or Chemistry-based careers. Some students could demonstrate proficiency in STM subjects but  lack  interest  in STM-based careers. Hence,  the need to  investigate how achievement  in STM subjects (cognitive  variables),

gender and school type (non-cognitive variables) relate with students’ interest in STM-based careers in the Nigerian context.

Cognitive  variables  refer  to  those  variables  that  have  direct  bearing  to  mental processes and are concerned with intellectual abilities and skills (Anaekwe, 2004).The main cognitive variable that indicates students’ potentialities for actualising their career aspirations is academic achievement in Science, Technology, and Mathematics. Science is a dynamic and objective process of seeking knowledge and attempting to construct rational explanations for  natural phenomena (Ibe,  2012).  It  also  refers to  the  body of knowledge,  facts  and principles generated through the scientific method. Science is thus both a process and a product. On the other hand, technology is the application of knowledge, facts and principles generated through science to solving human problems. Hence, technology is science made visible. Morison (2006) noted that literacy in Science, Technology, and Mathematics enable students to be problem solvers, inventors, innovators, logical thinkers and self reliant citizens.

In Nigeria Junior Secondary Schools, science is taught as Basic science (formerly integrated science) while technology is taught as Basic technology (formerly introductory technology). At the senior Secondary School level, science is taught as Biology, Chemistry and Physics. Technology is fused in these science subjects in recognition of the fact that technology is the application of scientific concepts and principles. In some special schools like technical Colleges, technology is additionally taught as technical drawing but in most public Secondary Schools in the area of study technical drawing does not exist as a school subject. Hence, Student’s achievement in STM subjects like Biology, Chemistry, Physics and Mathematics constituted the cognitive correlates of this study.

Achievement is the proportion of the specified learning content learnt by the students after exposure to the content within a specified period (Eze, 2013). Students who achieve highly academically  in a  subject  have  more  knowledge  in that  particular  subject,  more

adaptive motivational beliefs, and better self-regulation than their counterparts who earn lower grades (van der Stoep, Pintrich and Fagerlin, 1996). Most research studies on students’ achievement in STM subjects focused on analysis of achievement level, effect of different teaching methods on achievement and how achievement in one or more STM subjects affect the  other.  Ndecherogu  (2008)  reported that  students’  achievement  in STM  subjects are generally  low. Olatoye (2007) reported no  significant  effect  of Further Mathematics on students’ achievement in Mathematics, Biology, Chemistry and Physics. On the contrary, Kurumeh, Igyu and Mohammed (2013) reported a significant relationship between achievement in Mathematics and each one of Chemistry, Physics and Biology. Extensive review  of  literature  showed  that  investigations  on  how  students’  achievement  in  STM subjects relates with their interest in STM-based careers are rare. This type of study is crucial in other to understand and better strategise ways of improving both students’ achievements in STM  subjects  and  their  interest   in  STM-based  careers  to  produce  proficient  STM professionals for innovations.

Non cognitive variables are those variables outside the brain skills and are concerned with physical, emotional, social and cultural skills. The non cognitive variables investigated in this study are gender and school type. Gender is a socio-cultural ascription of roles on the basis of masculinity or feminity. Okeke (2008) refers to gender as the social or cultural construct, characteristics, behaviours and roles which society ascribes to females and males.    In most rural African societies, females interact with the environment more than males in the realm of agriculture and the tapping of other natural resources for domestic uses; hence female gender becomes the primary users of science in daily living (Avotri, Owusu- Darko, Eghan and Ocansey,  2000). Yet  several studies reveal gender disparity in STM careers, except in Biology and health-related disciplines, like Medicine and Nursing in favour of males (Federal Ministry of Education, 2005; National Science Foundation report, 2007;

Eze, 2013).     Gender disparities in STM fields has been attributed among others to family formation and child rearing, gender stereotyping, life style choices, religion, careers preferences and personal choices (Ceci and Williams, 2011). Because of these factors, certain careers  and  professions (like  Engineering,  Architecture,  and  Computer)  are  regarded  as belonging to the male gender while others (like Teaching, Nursing, Catering, Typing and Arts) are regarded as belonging to the female gender. The demand for skilled workers in STM fields will be difficult, if not impossible to meet, if the nation’s future Mathematicians, Scientists, Engineers, Information technologists, Computer programmers, and Health care workers do not reflect the diversity of the population (Institute for Higher Education Policy [IHEP], 2010). Hence the present study also investigated the relationship between gender and interest in STM-based career as well as school type.

School type can be regarded as co-educational or single-sex school. A co-educational school type is a type in which both sexes (boys and girls) receive education together in one school. Single-sex school type is a type in which only one sex are educated in a particular school (that is, all boys or all girls). Each of the two school types has merits and demerits. In addition,  the  different  psychosocial environments  peculiar  to  each  type  could  influence students’ academic achievement as well as interest in STM-based careers. There is also a belief that boys and girls learn differently and educational instruction is more effective when it is tailored to these differences (Aedín, Donal and Olive 2012). Single-sex type of schooling may be beneficial for building successful female career aspirations and self-esteem, and also made girls feel empowered and intelligent (Baker, 2002). Amal, Khalil, Mohamad, Abou- Hashish and Eman (2011) reported that academic progress of boys was improved by coeducation, while that of girls was not affected. Hazari, Sadler and Sonnert (2010), reported that having same sex science classes had no significant effect on interest in STM-based careers. Awofala (2011) reported significant differences in the Mathematics performance of

single-sex male and female students in favour of male students. Bang and Baker (2013) noted that the male and female students from the co-educational school had significantly higher science achievement and positive attitudes towards science than their counterparts in single- sex schools. These researches are inconclusive in their reports and focused more on the effect of school type on achievement. Most studies on the effect of school type on students’ interest in STM-based careers were not conducted in Nigeria. Hence, the need to investigate in the Nigerian context the correlation between schools type and interest  in STM-based careers.

The study on cognitive and non-cognitive correlates of interest in STM-based careers is imperative  because  generating  skilled  populace  in  STM-based  careers  is  an  important criterion for economic growth and innovation. In addition, interest in STM-based careers and achievement in STM subjects are central in the actualisation of career aspiration in these fields.   Existing  research  studies   have   focused  on  increasing   students’   interest   and achievement in the specific STM subjects. Empirical evidence on the correlation between cognitive variables (achievement in Biology, Chemistry, Physics and Mathematics), non- cognitive variables (gender, and school type) and students’ interest in STM-based careers are rare. There is no holistic study on cognitive and non-cognitive correlates of interest in STM- based careers. It is against the foregoing background that the present study sought to investigate the extent  to  which cognitive  variables (achievement  in Biology,  Chemistry, Physics and Mathematics) and non-cognitive variables (gender and school type) relate with interest in STM-based careers.

Statement of Problem

Evidences abound on the importance of highly skilled STM workforce in improving

Nigeria’s  global  economic  competitiveness  and  in  actualization  of  the  nation’s  vision

20:2020. Literature reveals that both interest in STM-based careers, proficiency in STM

subjects  (cognitive  variables),  gender  and  school  types  (non-cognitive  variables)  are necessary in generating proficient and diverse STM workforce for economic growth and innovations.  In Nigeria, most research studies focus on students’ achievement and interest in the individual STM subjects. These studies lack linkage to student’s career interests and aspirations. Emphasis on student’s career interests and aspiration is important because although high interest in STM subjects could lead to high academic achievement, these may not translate to  students’ entrance into STM-based fields and careers in the future. The relationship between non-cognitive variables and interest in STM-based careers are also less emphasized. It is against this background that it is crucial to understand, predict and properly direct students’ entrance into STM disciplines. Thus, the problem of the study is how does cognitive (achievement in Biology, Chemistry, Physics and Mathematics), and non-cognitive (gender and school type) variables relate with interest in STM-based careers?

Purpose of the Study

The main purpose of the study was to examine how achievement in STM subjects (cognitive variables), gender and school type (non-cognitive variables) relate with interest in STM- based careers. Specifically, the study sought to:

      Determine the relationship between achievement in Biology and interest in STM- based careers.

      Determine the relationship between achievement in Chemistry and interest in STM- based careers.

      Determine the relationship between achievement in Physics and interest in STM- based careers.

      Determine the relationship between achievement in Mathematics and interest in STM- based careers.

      Determine the mean responses of single sex and coeducational school students on interest in STM-based careers.

      Determine the mean responses of male and female students on interest in STM-based careers.

Significance of the Study

The findings from this study have both theoretical and practical significance. The study is deemed theoretically significant because it provides insight into the existing theories of career development and achievement. In particular, Lent, Brown, and Hacket (1994) postulated the Social cognitive career theory (SCCT), which is an offshoot of Bandura’s general social cognitive theory. The SCCT asserts that individual career goals are consistent with their interest, self-efficacy and outcome expectations.  The theory identified mastery experience (students’ achievement in a subject) as one of the main sources of self-efficacy. The findings of this study provide more empirical clarifications on how achievement in STM subjects of Biology, Chemistry, Physics and Mathematics (cognitive variables of the study), gender and school type(non-cognitive variables of the study) relate with interest in STM-based careers. The results of this study will strengthen the tenets of existing theories and shall help to expand the body of knowledge in the area of students’ achievement, gender, and school type in relation to interest in STM-based careers.

Practically, empirical understanding of the cognitive and non-cognitive correlates of interest in STM-based careers would be of use to students, parents, guidance/counsellors, policymakers,   and   teachers,   principals   of   schools,   examination   bodies   and   future researchers. The findings will inform and guide students in setting appropriate career goals. Students will utilize the findings of this study, as it revealed the extent to which cognitive and non-cognitive variables of the study relate with interest in STM-based careers. This

revelation will enable them to evaluate themselves. Self-evaluation will enable them make desirable changes, regulate and improve their efforts toward self-actualization.

Parents will utilize the findings from this study, as it has information on the cognitive and non-cognitive correlates of interest in STM-based careers. The information will enable parents to improve their own roles and offer appropriate assistance to their children. This is important because appropriate parental care and assistance enhance children’s realisation of their potentials. Similarly, Guidance/counsellors will use the findings of this study, as it revealed the cognitive and non-cognitive correlates of interest in STM-based careers. The information will enable them provide early and desirable information necessary for students to make informed decisions when selecting a career that connects to academic preparation and future aspirations. The information from this study will increase the knowledge base of the guidance/counsellors thereby improving their professional efficacy and commitment to the students they serve.

The findings provide policy-makers with information to assist in understanding of the pathways students take from STM school subjects to commencing post-secondary school study of STM, and the likelihood of this translating into STM occupations. In addition, this will inform and guide policy makers in formulating appropriate polices for practice with respects to STM issues. In addition, the findings revealed information that will help teachers to provide adequate and appropriate direction and support to science learners. Teachers will understand  what  to  emphasize  more,  whether  on the  cognitive  correlates,  non-cognitive correlates or both depending on the findings.

Future researchers who wish to conduct study related to cognitive and non-cognitive correlates of interest in STM-based careers will use the result of this study as reference material  and  guide.  The  findings  will  provide  future  researchers  with  information  on

achievement in STM subjects, school type and gender issues in relation to interest in STM- based careers.

Scope of the Study

The study was carried out in Obollo-Afor education zone of Enugu State. The choice of Obollo Education zone is because of varying career interests and aspirations of male and female students, from different school types which may influence students’ interest in STM- based careers. In addition, extensive literature review revealed that no holistic study on cognitive and non-cognitive correlates of interest in STM-based careers has been conducted in this area.

The study focused on senior secondary school one (SS1) students, investigating the cognitive and non-cognitive correlates of interest in STM-based careers. This is because at this level, they are exposed to all subjects (STM and non STM-based subjects). Secondly, they are at the tentative stage of career development where decision on subject choices is made in relation to future career aspirations. The cognitive correlates were limited to achievement in Biology, achievement in Chemistry, achievement in Physics and achievement in Mathematics at internal examination.

Research Questions

Six research questions posed to guide the study were as follow:

1.      What is the relationship between achievement in Biology and interest in STM-based careers?

2.      What is the relationship between achievement in Chemistry and interest in STM- based careers?

3.      What is the relationship between achievement in Physics and interest in STM-based careers?

4.      What is the relationship between achievement in Mathematics and interest in STM- based careers?

5.      What are the mean responses of male and female students on interest in STM-based careers?

6.      What are the mean responses of single sex and coeducational school students on interest in STM-based careers?

Hypotheses

Six null hypothesis were formulated to guide the study. They were tested at 0.05 level of significance.

1.  There is no significant relationship between students’ achievement in Biology and their mean interest score on the STM-based career Interest Inventory (SCAII).

2.  There is no significant relationship between students’ achievement in Chemistry and their mean interest score on the STM-based career Interest Inventory (SCAII)).

3.    There is no significant relationship between students’ achievement in Physics and their mean interest score on the STM-based career Interest Inventory (SCAII).

4.    There is no significant relationship between students’ achievement in Mathematics and their mean interest score on the STM-based career Interest Inventory (SCAII).

5.    There is no significant difference (p<0.05) between the mean interest scores of male and female students on the STM-based Career Interest Inventory (SCAII) 6.                     There is no significant difference (p<0.05) between the mean interest scores of single sex and coeducational school students on interest in STM-based careers.

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