EFFECT OF NEED-FOCUSED COGNITIVE RESTRUCTURING INTERVENTION PROGRAMME ON THE SELF-ESTEEM AND SELF-EFFICACY OF RECIDIVIST INMATES IN THE PRISONS IN NIGERIA

ABSTRACT

This  study investigated  the  effect  of  Need-Focused  Cognitive  Restructuring  Intervention Programme (NEFCRIP) on the self-esteem and self-efficacy of recidivist inmates in the zone G of the Nigeria prison service. The design of the study was a post-test only control group design. There were six research questions and six corresponding hypotheses raised to guide the study. The sample of the study was 74 recidivist inmates purposively selected from six prisons out of the 11 medium prisons in zone G with a total population of 105 recidivists. The participants were assigned to experimental and control groups. Inmates in the experimental group received Need-Focused Cognitive Restructuring Intervention Programme (NEFCRIP). The  programme emphasized  positive thinking and positive values, cognitive restructuring, coping skills and positive self-talk as strategies for building self-esteem  and  self-efficacy. The control group received a placebo-conventional counselling. Inmate’s Self-esteem (ISES) and Self-efficacy (ISEFS) scales were the instruments used for data  collection. Data were analyzed using means and standard deviations while ANOVA was used to test the hypotheses at .05 probability level. Results showed that, NEFCRIP had  significant effect on the self- esteem and self-efficacy of recidivist inmates in Nigeria  prisons. The interaction between NEFCRIP and gender on self-esteem and self-efficacy of recidivist was not significant. It was concluded among others that Need-focused cognitive restructuring intervention programme (NEFCRIP) significantly is an effective cognitive based intervention programme that can be used to treat low self-esteem and low self-efficacy prevalent among recidivist inmates. Based on the findings, it was recommended that psychological services/counselling that is cognitive based  should  be  set up  as a regular  programme  in the  Nigeria  prisons.  Workshops  and seminars should be organized by the Ministry of Interior for the training of welfare officers some of whom are not trained psychologists or counsellors on how to use NEFCRIP in the prisons to improve the low self-esteem and self-efficacy of recidivist inmates. Need-focused cognitive   restructuring   intervention   programme   should   form  part  of   the  counselling programmes for the inmates in Nigeria prison.

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

Background of the Study

Prison  is  an  institution  where  persons  who  violate  the  laws  of  a  society  are incarcerated for the offences committed when found guilty in the court of law or as they wait to go to court to determine their guilt. The Prisons are established to serve as corrective as well as reformatory institutions.   In Nigeria, the prison is charged with  taking custody of those legally detained, identifying causes of their behaviour and  retraining them to become useful citizens in the society (Orakwe, 2004). Hence, the Nigerian Prison Service (NPS) was founded as an institution that corrects social deviants, punishes and reforms criminals. The NPS  operates  under  the  prison  Act,  number  9  of  1972  and  serves  to  complement  the processes of legal adjudicate and law enforcement (FGN, 1990: 3-5).

There are different categories  of prisons and prison related institutions  in  Nigeria. They include, the convict prisons, satellite prison camps, farm centres,  cottage industries, borstal  institutions  and  open  prison  camps  (NPS,  2014).  These  prisons  serve  different purposes for the different categories of offenders:  the convict prisons consist of medium and maximum security prisons and they are for the remand of both convicted and awaiting trial inmates. According to Orakwe (2004), the maximum security prisons take in all classes of prisoners including condemned  convicts, lifers  and  long term prisoners while the medium security prison takes into  custody both  remand  inmates  and  convicts  on short term.  The satellite prisons serve as intermediate prisons camps set up in areas where courts are far from the main prisons. They are  usually for the awaiting trial persons (ATPs) whose cases are being tried in court very close to the satellite camps but far from the main prisons. When convicted, they are  moved to appropriate convict prisons to service their terms. The farm

centres are agricultural prison camps set up to train inmates in agro-based vocations so that

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on release they must have acquired agro-based skills to start up life anew. Apart from  the farm  centres  that  are  largely  mechanized  farms  located  in  the  food  producing  areas  in Nigeria, some state prisons establish subsidiary farms and market gardens.  The subsidiary farms are made up of vegetable-producing market gardens, poultry and piggery farms. In all, the establishment of the farm centres and subsidiary farms are endeavours to train inmates in vocational skills so they can be functional when they leave the prison on release. The efforts are also expected to yield revenue to the state.  Finally,  the borstal institutions, are for the remand and treatment of juvenile offenders and there are only three of such in Nigeria.

Whatever the category, the role of the prisons is to rehabilitate offenders so they can reintegrate into a set standard of behaviour or principles of conduct of the society on release. Rehabilitation  is  the  act  of  rebuilding  something  to  its  former  and  original  state.  It  is concerned with the inner worth and the dignity of an individual. More so, rehabilitation is committed  to  the  restoration  of  the  inmate  to  a  life  that  is  meaningful  and  allows  the individual to meet with the obligations of the society in which they live. According to Ahire (2004)  rehabilitation  refers  to  post  release  efforts  made  carefully  to  make  it  easier  for offenders   to  resettle  in  the  society.   However,  Sinclair   and  Dickson  (1998)  defined rehabilitation  as a process aiming to  restore personal autonomy in those aspects of daily living considered most relevant by inmates. The definitions suggest that the individual had deviated from normalcy. When somebody falls short of expected behaviour, the person needs to be restored to a condition or frame of mind to be able to act normally. To rehabilitate, and as stated  in  the  prisoners’  rights and  responsibilities  information  booklet,  the  inmate  on admittance, will determine a suitable area for training as a way of rehabilitation (NPS nd). The process of rehabilitation therefore, is indispensable for the correction of event disposing factor to criminal behaviours. Thus in this study rehabilitation means a process of meeting

with the inmates’ criminogenic needs so that they do not show sign or tendency to re-offend in future.

Recidivism  is  a  prisoner’s  repetition  of  a  criminal  behaviour  or  act  after  being sanctioned.  It  may be  for  same  or  new  offense.  For  Schmallenger  and  Smykla  (2005), recidivism means the re-arrest, reconviction, or re-incarceration of former inmates. Tenibiaje (2013)  describes  it  as  falling  back  or  relapse  into  prior  criminal  habits  especially  after punishment.  The rate of recidivism  endangers  the  social  and  economic  condition  of the society as well as the life and property of the  citizenry.  If recidivism  is not checked the society in which recidivists  live may  become  the target  of their  criminal acts.  Tenibiaje (2013) refers a recidivist as a person who repeatedly commits crime or a person who repeats an unwanted behaviour  even after experiencing its negative consequences.  In this study, a recidivist is an inmate who after serving a jail term for a committed offence is rearrested for a similar or another offence.

There are certain factors that may contribute to recidivism. To Alberts (2000) reasons why inmates  get in and go back (recidivism)  could be an individual’s  character  and life experiences.  According  to  Gendreau,  Goggin  and  Little  (1996),  the  factors  which  cause recidivism  are  called  dynamic  factors.  The  dynamic  factors  reflect  internal  states  and temporary circumstances of individual such as attitudes and cognition. Gendreau, Goggin and Little emphasized  that the strongest predictors of recidivism were dynamic risk factors of attitudes and cognition.

Attitudes  and  cognition  might  determine  the  extent  one  can  cope  or   tolerate frustrations.  According  to Knaus (1998),  when individuals’  wants,  desires,  and  goals  get thwarted,  they  normally  feel  frustration,  which  reflects  an  attitude  about  the  unwanted condition. Frustration does not get provoked by circumstances but results mainly from mental

processes: one’s ideas about people, events, concepts, and feelings. Life after imprisonment might even cause frustrations  which may lead to aggression,  regression,  complacency,  or compulsive behaviours. It can also stimulate positive change  depending upon how inmates interpret the feelings of frustrations. In spite of this, it is believed that individuals from birth have the basic need to think and feel well about themselves. They have the ability as they grow to seek to understand  who  they are  and also  make  judgments  about  whether  their behaviour is good or bad. Self judgements are considered to be the basis for self-esteem.

Rosenberg (1965) defines self-esteem as favourable or unfavourable attitude towards the  self.  According  to  Gerrig  and  Zimbardo  (2005:459),  “self-esteem  is  a  generalized evaluation of the self and can strongly influence thoughts, moods and  behaviour”.   In the same perspective, Ferkany (2008) defines self-esteem as how individuals feel about their self, good or bad and as manifested in a variety of ways as positive or negative value. More so, Gleitman, Reisberg and Gross (2007), define self-esteem as the relative balance of positive and negative judgments about oneself. Self-esteem sums up the positive and negative forms of feeling about oneself.

Self-esteem impacts significantly on one’s life. This is why Gleitman, Reisberg and Gross (2007) posit that boosting  self-esteem  could  heal a range of individual  and  social problems  from poor grades,  depression,  and bullying  to criminality.    Likewise  Reasoner (1994), reports that self-esteem is a critical factor as both a source of crime prevention and an essential  element  of  rehabilitation  and  behavioural  change.  It  is  an  important  cognitive variable that influences and sometimes even determines success in one’s life. That is to say, with healthy self-esteem, one might being capable of meeting life challenges.

There is evidence that the human needs associated with self-esteem are so strong that

when personal needs for self-worth and value are not met, individuals will engage in drug or

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alcohol abuse, or crime and violence to satisfy these needs (Reasoner 1994). For  example people may join gangs because they want to belong and to be “somebody” rather than be a “nobody”. Thus there seem to be significant links among\ self-esteem, criminal behaviours and other psychological problems. Adler (1956) theorized that self-esteem needs are at the root of many,  if not most, psychological  problems.  Confirming  Adler’s assertion,  Dogar, Akhwanzada, Bajwa, Haider and Asmat 2010; Mason, 2001 and Tzeng and Yi, 2002, stated that delinquent behaviours were found to be associated with low self-esteem. Implicitly, to reduce delinquent behaviour is to enhance self-esteem and Kelley (1998) found evidence of a link between increased self-esteem and a reduction of delinquent behaviour in his study. He posits that as programmes were implemented to raise the level of self-esteem, the incidence of delinquent behaviour was reduced.

Therefore,  a  key  element  in  intervention  programmes  for  individuals  showing criminal behaviours is to enhance their self-esteem. In order to improve one’s self-esteem, Frank (2014) posited that the negative self-talk must be identified and eliminated. Individuals need  to  recognize  their  strength  and  self  worth.  With  this  in  place,  they  can  tolerate frustrations and challenges and become readily responsive for positive behavioural changes. Besides,  Baumeister,  Campbell,  Krueger,  and  Vohs,  (2003);  Harter,  (1990)  opined  that throughout  one’s  life  span,  self-esteem  and  self-perceived  competencies  are  considered essential determinants of well-being and functioning.

Generally, high self-esteem has positive behavioural benefits including the reduction in the tendency to criminal behaviour. Ferkany (2008) and Frank (2014) listed the benefits to include, independence, responsibility taking and ability to tolerate frustrations, resistance to pressure,  willingness  to attempt  new tasks and challenges,  ability to handle positive  and negative emotions and the willingness to offer assistance to others. The benefit also includes

goal commitment, genuineness, forgiving, internal values, positivity and self  improvement. Individuals with a high self-esteem already know their true value. Rogerian theory according to Pervin, Cervone, and Oliver (2005) suggested that people who have a consistent self-view across situations are psychologically healthier than people whose self-view is variable across situations. A person with high self-esteem would likely be  in better position to cope with peculiar problems of life especially that which accompanies life outside the prison walls than one whose self-esteem is low even when both had acquired a skill while in prison. High self- esteem inmates may be more willing  and determined to learn skills necessary for survival after  release.  Unfortunately  researchers  such  as  Chullone,  Jones  and  Cummins  (2000) indicated that prisoners have lower levels of self-esteem.

The consequences of low self-esteem have been linked to low levels of achievement, depression,  low  success  in  work,  poor  life  coping  strategies,  signs  of  despondence  in challenging  situations  and other maladjusted  behaviours.  Confirming  these, Osayi, (2013) stated that discharged prisoners find it difficult to reintegrate into the society because of some factors which seem to inhibit the efforts. The factors could be social and cultural. According to Ugwoke (2010) these social or cultural factors include public attitude towards the released inmates. Ugwoke maintained that even after discharge from the prison, inmates are branded and  treated  as  ex-convicts.  Thus  stigmatization  is  the  greatest  obstacle  to  a  discharged prisoner’s  re-integration.  This  leads  to  increase  in recidivism  among  inmates  in Nigeria prisons especially in southeastern and southwestern states.  This people are of Igbo and Benin extractions  respectively.  They have maintained  a strong cultural belief system  which has influenced their world view including the way their members relate and perceive discharged prisoners (Osayi, 2013).

According  to  Igbo,  (1999)  the  traditional  Igbo  societies  within  the  southeastern Nigeria   still   perceive   and   treat   ex-convicts   as   outcasts,   evil,   wicked   and   are   ex- communicated. This stigma is further emphasized by the legal or state law which so defines the  discharged  prisoner.  They  are  prohibited  from  employment  to  certain  positions  and occupation of public offices (Osayi, 2013). Thus for the inmates to survive these frustrations, effective rehabilitation  for basic  psychological  and vocational  skills for survival becomes highly imperative.  Otherwise,  confronted  with societal hostility and insecurity,  discharged inmates may likely end up committing more crimes, that is, relapse to recidivism. Currently, Osayi (2013) reported that recidivism is high in Nigerian prisons

Attention to rates of recidivism therefore could be an important way to monitor the role of prisons in rehabilitating inmates. Schmallenger and Smykla (2005) posited  that the rate of recidivism vary greatly from place to place depending on the amount and quality of intervention, surveillance and enforcement. However, the Nigerian government has continued to  employ  measures  to  embrace  the  modern  concepts  of  imprisonment  that  emphasizes correction rather than punishment.  They have put  efforts to depict the global correctional services that discourage recidivism. Part of the  measures includes the setting up of social welfare department and vocational skill training centres in many of the prisons in Nigeria (Prison Newsletter, 2006).

The     social     welfare     department     among     other     functions     carry     out counselling/psychological  services. As part of its psychological services, the social welfare department assists prison inmates to readily adjust to the prison environment and possibly to life  after  prison (Prison  Newsletter,  2006).  In discharging  their  counselling  services,  the welfare department cautions inmates on the dangers of criminal actions. For instance, inmates are sensitized on the dangers of their actions. They are told that, should they get rearrested, they may likely receive  longer  sentence  as  deterrence.  During  counselling  sessions,  they

employ techniques like stimulus control where an inmate is advised not to take revenge on people or society who they feel may have wronged them. Inmates are always advised to keep away from company that may possibly influence them negatively and that being contented reduces crime tendencies. The welfare department also allows churches to carry out spiritual activities through preaching and praying for the inmates to help in salvaging their souls. Even those who may exhibit any form of misconduct or violation of rules within the prison are counselled. For example, Onimajesin (2005) noted that, all kinds of vices like, drug abuse, brutality among inmates, homosexuality and theft,  fighting, destroying of prison property, disobeying other prison rules and regulations exist within the prison walls. For this reasons psychological services are regularly employed by the welfare officer to counsel inmates. Yet the inmates do not seem to be  adjusted  for post release  life.  In other words, recidivism persists.

In addition,  the  vocational  centres  were  established  in prisons  to  train  convicted inmates  for  various  vocational  skills  like,  carpentry,  upholstery,  barbing,  tailoring,  shoe making and repair, laundry, electrical, welding, et cetera. After an  inmate is released, the welfare department offers after-care services to the freed inmate  to ensure that the person utilize the vocational skills and behaviours learned while in prison. Though the centres are in place, some convicted inmates, as reported by some  welfare officers in the prisons, show little willingness to engage in any skill training at the centre. Rather, they prefer to work in the kitchen and do other menial works that  may earn them little money. Reacting to this attitude  among  inmates,  some  of  the  deputy  comptrollers  of  prison  (DCP)  interviewed observed  that  some  of the  inmates  who  were even trained  and  settled  by the after-care department returned to prison after release. This may put a question mark on the efficacy of rehabilitation efforts in Nigeria prisons.

The Nigerian government has in the past made efforts to improve the lives of inmates so they can become good citizens on release. For example, food, clothes, books, and other relief materials have regularly been donated by Federal and State  governments,  corporate organizations, nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), churches and religious groups. Agabi (2013) reported that over 2,000 books and seven  computers  were donated by an NGO to Ikoyi prisons.  There  were  also  construction  of more  accommodations  and  renovation  of existing ones to give the inmates a better environment. Others include granting of amnesty by the President and state Governors-21 prisoners in Anambra state; 40 in Katsina state and 30 in Maiduguri, (Ogundipe in the Reformer, 2006:29). Equally, the establishment of workshops and  farms  are  efforts  government  and  other  agencies  have  made  towards  rehabilitating inmates. Yet there is increasing rate of recidivism among inmates in some major prisons in Nigeria indicating that the efforts may not have been enough. For instance, Soyombo (2009) reported a pervasive criminal recidivism  in Nigeria at 37.3% rate in 2005; Abrifo  (2010) estimated the prevalence of recidivism at 52.4% in 2010 while Wilson (2009)  reports that studies  conducted  have  documented  81%  and  45%  of  males  and   females  rearrested respectively within 36 months of release from prison custody. Furthermore, annual abstract of statistics of the Nigeria Prison Service (NPS) shows that in 1990, no fewer than 482 of the

13,036 offenders were found to have been convicted six times or more, 758 were found  to have been convicted five times, 643 three times and 1,252 twice, 2,598 once. Also, Odekunle (2007) notes that prisons regularly receive back almost half of those they have reformed and rehabilitated.

In order to have an effective rehabilitation, efforts must address inmates’ needs and development:  empower  inmates  to  cope  with  their  social  and  personal  experiences  and develop the cognitive, spiritual, and emotional skills that will enable  them to start living a

better life. Prisoners are supposed to acquire skills to start life anew and adjust readily into the society after release. Such life skills include positive feelings and regard for  one self, positive value placed on success, ability to motivate oneself to accomplish important tasks in life. It also includes the power to become resilient after a fall in life, confident, ability to trust the  future  without  looking  in  the  past,  tolerance,  independence  in  decisions  taking  and responsible  in  living  (Frank,  2014).  These  life  skills  will  equip  them  for  work,  study, vocational training and coping with the stigma associated with imprisonment.

Self-efficacy could be one such life coping skills for inmates and there appears to be a direct relationship between self-esteem and self-efficacy. Self efficacy is defined by Wilson, Kickul and Marlino (2007) as an individual’s self confidence in specific tasks and situations. According  to  Lo,  Cheng,  Wong,  Rochelle,  and  Kwok  (2011),  perceived  self-efficacy describes   people’s   beliefs   about   their   capabilities   to   produce   designated   levels   of performance   that  exercise  influence  over  events  that   affect  their  lives.  Self  efficacy determines how people feel, think, motivate themselves and behave; it is an individual power over an outcome and one’s ability to succeed in accomplishing a task (Bandura, 1986, 1977). Perhaps, an individual who  knows that success is dependent on efforts and not on others, might be willing to engage in behaviours that will yield success. In this study, self-efficacy is considered inmate’s ability to accomplish a task that deals with the challenges of re-offending and also the readiness to live acceptable lives.

The importance of self-efficacy in understanding individual behaviour, one’s decision making processes and effectiveness has been highlighted through research. Bandura (1997) noted that individuals who have a low sense of self-efficacy are more  likely to engage in problem behaviours such as delinquency, crime, violence and so on. More importantly, self- efficacy is considered most central for behaviour change. This implies that individuals with

low self-efficacy may be more vulnerable to commit crime than those who have high  self efficacy. Thus, inmates who are able to produce desired results by their actions or know that the consequences of their actions are dependent on them and not on others may be willing to change.  According  to Longmore  (2003)  inmates  do not only need  reasons to alter risky behaviours/thoughts, they also must believe in their ability to exercise personal control. This personal control can be to engage in long term goals of vocational skill training than earning little money.

Researchers such as Frank (2014) and Santa (2006) have suggested that crime  was more frequent for individuals who had lower self-efficacy belief. They do not engage in long term goals. As pointed out by Santa (2006), individuals with low self-efficacy are: impulsive, lack diligence and persistence, drawn to physical activities that are adventurous and exciting but lacking in contemplation or conversation, tend to be indifferent or insensitive to the needs of others, and tend to have low tolerance for  frustration and have an inclination to handle conflict through confrontation. Frank (2014) opined that one of the characteristics of low self- efficacy individuals is that they put a great effort into behaving in a way to obtain approval from other people and try to hide their past failures/mistakes from others. For example, many inmates who were interviewed stated that they find it difficult to cope with being labelled ex- prisoner  and  so  try to hide their identity.  In doing this, they find acceptance  among old friends and end up in more crises.

Reducing  recidivism  and  preventing  crimes  enhance  public  safety,  resources  and human potentials.   Hence proper rehabilitation through a cognitive process to reduce crime remains a critical concern. Intervention programmes that target the criminogenic needs of the inmates  are  widely  recognized   as  key  component  to   reducing  recidivism  and  crime prevention.  Studies  by Andrew  (1995)  and Cullen  and Gendreau,  (2000)  revealed  that  a reduction in recidivism rate in prisons might be achieved through a rehabilitative strategy that

addresses the criminogenic needs. It points to the fact that people are motivated by a variety of needs to offend and that violence might be caused by a deprivation of an individual’s need. As a result,  the  individual  appears  to be vulnerable  to crime  till  such needs are  met or resolved (Maslow, 1968; Siegel, 2005).

Crime is a socially destabilizing occurrence. The prevention and control can also be a herculean task because the causal elements of crime at any given time vary (Orakwe, 2004). One of the most notable  characteristics  of criminal  offenders  is  distorted  cognition–self- justificatory thinking, misinterpretation of social cues, displacement of blame, deficient moral reasoning, schemas of dominance and  entitlement (Beck, 1999; Dodge, 2000: and Walters and White, 1989). Offenders with such distorted thinking may misperceive benign situations as  threats.  For  example,   they  may  be  predisposed  to  perceive  harmless  remarks  as disrespectful  or  deliberately  provocative,  demand  instant  gratification,  and confuse  wants with  needs.  Criminal  thinking  is often tied  to a “victim  stance”  with offenders  viewing themselves as unfairly blamed, if not hated, and cast out from society “everyone is against me,” or “society doesn’t give me a chance” while failing to see how their negative belief may have contributed to their problems (Dodge, 2000).

Inmates’  awareness  of the process  of thoughts  that  lead  to  criminal  behaviour  is critical in developing the desire and motivation to change. The inmates may even desire to live an acceptable life after release, but the non rehabilitation is an indication that this desire may be unrealizable.  Even the dehumanizing  experience  in prison may reduce self-esteem and  self efficacy  of inmates.  Nonetheless,  Ellis  (1976)  pointed  out that  when  thoughts, assumptions, and expectations are inaccurate, false, or irrational, clinical intervention into the thought  process, rather than the responses  to it, is  appropriate.  The development  of such awareness demands that individuals learn skills  for recognizing the thought processes that lead to cognitive distortion of realities.

Cognitive  restructuring  is a  process  of learning  to  refute  cognitive  distortions  or defective thinking with the aim of replacing them with more accurate and beneficial  ones. The term cognitive restructuring refers to the alteration of the beliefs, attitudes, and meanings that a person brings to the interpretation of experience (Edwards, 1990). Rodriguez (2009), stated that cognitive restructuring teaches an individual how to recognize distorted thoughts and  replace  them  with  realistic  ones.  Similarly,  Connolly (2001)  opined  that  cognitive restructuring  involves  learning  how  to  think  differently,  to  change  fundamental  ‘faulty thinking,’ and replace it with more rational, realistic, and perhaps positive thinking. Cognitive restructuring programme as an intervention programme equips individuals with such skills by addressing cognition. Cognitions as strong predictors of recidivism according to Gendreau, Goggin and Little (1996) when confronted and changed can lead to reduction in re-offending (Wilson, Bouffard & Mackenzie, 2005).

Cognitive restructuring may work to change antisocial thoughts that may stem from dysfunctional  personality  such as low self-esteem  and self-efficacy.  Thinking  errors may allow individuals to interpret their environment in a manner that permits criminal behaviour. For example, if an individual steals from people, his belief system may be that it does not matter how he makes it in life; the end actually justifies the means, and after all he is not the only person that does it. However, the role of cognitive restructuring programme will be to change  negative  thoughts  and  replace  them  with   more  positive  ways  of  processing information.  It will basically attempt to help  offenders manage their environment in more pro-social  ways.  Perhaps  cognitive  restructuring  can help  inmates  examine  the thoughts, beliefs  and  values  that  lead  to  criminal  behaviour  in a systematic  form (Latessa,  2006). According   Beck   (1979),   cognitive   restructuring   involves   the   following:   identifying

maladaptive   cognitions,   modifying   maladaptive   cognitions   and   assimilating   adaptive cognitions.

The efficacy of cognitive based therapy such as cognitive restructuring on  various behaviour related problems have been demonstrated by researchers. Like, Asonaba, Anti and Avonokadzi (2014); Adeusi (2012) and Osarenren and Ajaero  (2013) maintained that with cognitive  restructuring  targeting  irrational  and  faulty  thoughts,  the  individual  will  have increased adapted and functional behaviours.   On the other hand, Shih (2008) emphasized that cognitive based treatment reduces the probability of reconviction by 35% which supports the  hypothesis  that  effective  treatment is superior  to  traditional  punishment  in changing subsequent criminal behaviour. More so, Gatotoh, Omulema and Nassimu (2011); Cullen and Gendreau (2000); Rogers (2008) and Shih (2008) produced a body of evidence showing that cognitive based rehabilitative programs works in reducing recidivism. In line with the above, Lipsey  and  Cullen  (2007)  also  found  that  offenders  who  received  cognitive  behavioural treatment (CBT) have lower recidivism rates than those who did not receive treatment. The analyses showed average recidivism reduction effects in the 20% range. Lipsey and Cullen also concluded that the preponderance of research evidence, therefore, supports the general conclusion that CBT is capable of reducing the  re-offence (recidivism)  rates of convicted offenders.

Cognitive restructuring involves paying attention to thoughts, recognizing when they are irrational, challenging them, and learning replacement thoughts and  behaviours.  Burns (1989) posited that cognitive restructuring involves the following steps:

       Step one – Identify the upsetting situation;

       Step two – Record your negative feelings;

       Step three – Record your automatic thoughts;

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       Step four – Analyze these thoughts;

       Step five – Construct realistic and balanced thoughts;

       Step six – Evaluate this restructuring process.

In view of the above, cognitive restructuring might be effective in reducing recidivism. Although there are several ways to change maladaptive behaviours  including punishment, Bonta  (2001)  posited  that  punishment  alone  is  not  an  effective  means  for  preventing recidivism. It is evident that programmes that are behavioural, primarily of cognitive type are very effective at reducing recidivism among offenders in general (Lipsey, 1999; Milman & Wanberg,  2007). The aim of treatment  using cognitive  restructuring  is to restructure  the cognitive  distortions  and  dysfunctional  thought  processes  of  the  offender  that  lead  to inappropriate, deviant and negative behaviours.

Nevertheless, Need-focused cognitive restructuring intervention programme adopts as its core, the process in cognitive restructuring for meeting and intervening on the identified needs of the inmates. This was based on the need principle that  intervention programmes must target the criminogenic needs. The criminogenic needs include those values, attitudes or behaviours of the offender that are mostly associated with the likelihood of recidivism. For this study, the needs of the prison inmates identified through Focus Group Discussion (FGD) include among others, poor  self-value,  difficulty accepting failure and mistakes; difficulty recognizing strengths and self worth. These personality needs, values and skills may likely equip inmates to fit into the society on release. Cullen and Gendreau (2000), emphasized that correctional  treatments  must  focus  on  dynamic  risk  factors,  such  as  low  self-control, dysfunctional family ties, substance abuse and antisocial values.

The need-focused cognitive restructuring intervention programme process or steps for intervention include:

            Definition  and  the  relevance  of  self-esteem  and  self-efficacy  to  life challenges;

          Identify the upsetting situation;

          Identify negative self talks of both self-esteem and self-efficacy;

          Record negative feelings;

          Analyze the thoughts;

          Construct realistic and rational thoughts;

          Recognizing strengths and self worth;

          Developing skill set (coping skills);

          Evaluate the restructuring process.

The causes of criminal behaviour also hinges on the fact that various factors of which gender  is one. The choice to break the law can be attributable  to gender.  Fergusson  and Horwood (2002) suggested that individuals with low self-esteem are prone to delinquency and anti social behaviours and according to McMullen and Cairney (2004), males have higher self-esteem  than  females.  Logically  it  can  be  adduced  therefore,  that  males  have  less involvement in crime than females. Research has also continued to give evidence that there are more male offenders than females in prison custody and that it is assumed that males are more susceptible to reoffend compared to females. Abrifo, Atere, and Moughalu (2010); Kim and Kim  (2005) and Rigby and Cox  (2000)  citing Wilson and Herrnstein  opined  that in virtually every society for which crime records exists, the prevalence of crime and violence is greater among males compared to female offenders. However, Erol and Orth (2011) and Uba, Yaacob, Juhari and Talib (2010) posited that males and females do not differ in the self- esteem levels given that both males and females have the same proportionate involvement in crime. In line with the above, rehabilitative treatment could be gender based, in that Ogugua (2010)  found  that  females   gained   higher  mean  achievement   scores  than   their  male counterparts when CR technique is adopted. Contrary, Olubusayo (2014), discovered gender

differences  in among students  exposed  to CR with males benefitting  more  than  females. However there was no gender differences among persons exposed to CR on various forms of behaviour modification (Adeusi, (2012); Etaugh, & Hall (1989); Salman, Esere, Omotosho, Abdulahi & Oniyangi (2010).

There seem to be relative contradictions about gender differences in self-esteem and self-efficacy levels as well as in delinquent behaviours and recidivism. It is also very unclear whether  males will benefit from the treatment  more than the females or vice  versa. This scenario therefore prompted the researcher to examine gender as a moderator variable in the effects of need-focused  cognitive restructuring intervention programme  on the self-esteem and self-efficacy of recidivist inmates in Nigeria prisons.

Statement of the Problem

The issue of recidivism among inmates has become increasingly common in prisons and has aroused the concerns of major stake holders including government, educators, social workers,  security  agents  and  nongovernmental   organizations   and   the  prison  services. Recidivism among prison inmates is believed to pose threats to security of life and property in Nigeria.

It is on record that the Nigeria government have continued to expend huge resources in prisons to deter criminals from going back to prisons. Yet available evidence indicates that inmates still return to prison soon after release either for the same offence or similar offences. Interview  conducted  through FGD  revealed  that  inmates  feel  embittered  with life events around them, depressed and helpless, rejected by friends and families. The causes of their problems  as stated  by some of the inmates  were  attributed  to other people and to some supernatural powers/curses.  None seemed to  accept the blame for their problems. A large

number of them see themselves  as being useless; their world crashed and cannot  make it again in life. These points to the fact that, the inmates are unprepared to face the difficulties of life outside the prison and the resultant effect could be relapse into crime.

In addition, the high rate of misconducts among inmates like smoking of hard drugs, punishing  and  oppressing  new  inmates,  disobedience  to  prison  rules  and  regulations, destruction of prison property, among others indicate that inmates are not sufficiently ready so much as to cope with life when released. Life becomes frustrating when they cannot find means of livelihood, accommodation, or even reunite with their friends and families. It even becomes more difficult when they are stigmatized. Moreover, the harsh treatments from some prison officials could also be dehumanizing and ego threatening, and perhaps vitiate reform and rehabilitative  (including  counselling)  initiatives embedded in the philosophy of prison services.

Many researches  have been carried  out on the numerous  factors  that lead  to  and reduce   recidivism.   Policies   have   also   been   formulated   and   implemented   including establishment of counselling centres yet the rate of reoffending persists. In the  light of the above, the question that may arise is: what would be the effect of  need-focused  cognitive restructuring (NEFCRIP) on the self-esteem and self-efficacy of recidivist inmates in Nigeria prisons?

Purpose of the Study

The  purpose  of  the  study  is  to  determine  the  effects  of  need-focused   cognitive restructuring on self-esteem and self-efficacy of recidivist inmates in Nigeria.  Specifically, the study seeks to determine the:

1.      effect    of    need-focused     cognitive    restructuring    intervention     programme

(NEFCRIP)on self-esteem of recidivist inmates in Nigeria prisons.

2.      effect of need-focused cognitive restructuring on self-efficacy of recidivist inmates in Nigeria prisons.

3.      differences in the effect of NEFCRIP on inmates’ self-esteem based on gender.

4.      differences in the effect of NEFCRIP on inmates’ self-efficacy based on gender.

5.      interaction effect of treatment and gender on self-esteem of recidivist inmates  in

Nigeria prisons.

6.      interaction effect of treatment and gender on self-efficacy of recidivist inmates in

Nigeria prisons.

Significance of the Study

The  findings  of  this  study  will  be  of  significance  theoretically.  The  study  is anchored on Maslow’s hierarchy of needs and Ellis’s rational emotive theories. The findings of the study will help to understand better the existing theory which explains the basis for criminality and reoffending as a negative reaction to unsatisfied needs and also that behaviour problems  originate  from  stored  irrational  cognitive  scripts  which  can  be  changed  by substituting the stored irrational schema with rational schema. This can be achieved through need-focused cognitive restructuring intervention programme

The findings of the study equally are of theoretical significance to Rosenberg’s self- esteem, Adler’s psychodynamic theory (self-esteem) and Bandura’s self-efficacy theory when they are made available in print. These theories propose the thesis that the cognitive variables of self-esteem and self-efficacy respectively impact significantly on subsisting exigencies to give direction and strength to observed human behaviour.  Inmates who receive NEFCRIP targeting  inmates’  self-esteem  and self-efficacy  will  have positive  thoughts replacing  the negative ones. Inmates will learn not to attribute their problems on anybody or events. This

invariably will help them cope with frustrations and difficulties of life after prison.

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The findings when published  will be beneficial  to a number of persons  including, intelligence and law enforcement agencies in Nigeria, the Federal and state governments and policy   makers.   Also,   prison   re-offenders   and   stake   holders   like   the   church   and nongovernmental organizations, researchers, school psychologists, counsellors and students will benefit in different ways when the findings are published.

The  Intelligence  and  law  enforcement  agencies  in Nigeria  like  the  state  security services (SSS), National Intelligence  Agency (NIA), Defence Intelligence  Agency (DIA), Nigerian  Prison  Service  (NPS),  Nigerian  Police  Force  (NPF),  Economic  and  Financial Crimes   Commission   (EFCC),   Nigerian   Drug   Law   Enforcement   Agency   (NDLEA), Independent  Corrupt  Practices  Commission  (ICPC)  will benefit  from  the  findings  when published. It will serve as guide for dealing with  numerous re-offenders when re-arrested. They will learn that there are other significant  ways to address criminality apart from the extreme harsh treatments and punishment which they employ often. To the Judiciary, they may employ and give strict orders for a psychological intervention programme for recidivists than sentencing them to longer jail terms to serve as deterrence. Through the publication of the findings of the study, the  prison staff, especially the welfare officers will learn to use NEFCRIP  as  cognitive  based  intervention  programme/tool.  They  will  also  learn  to  be consistent in their welfare services.

The findings  will assist inmates  in addressing their personal needs including  their criminogenic needs. Development of coping skills and strengths by the inmates are needful for resisting criminal tendencies. Therefore when the findings are published and rehabilitation mounted, inmates will be properly guided towards the development of such skills. Again, by refuting negative thoughts, inmates will be enabled to have positive thoughts and understand that  thinking  and  living  positive  are  exigent  in  life’s success.  The realization  that  one’s performance in any task depends on one’s positive decisions and determinations and also not

by luck or chance may motivate  the inmates  to evaluate and take responsibility  for  their actions and develop skills for living worthwhile life.

The findings of this study will provide the psychologists, counselors, social workers and students with empirical data for research, training, intervention, reduction and prevention of  recidivism  among  inmates  in the  prisons  in  Nigeria.  Furthermore,  it will  provide  an understanding of the effectiveness of need focused cognitive restructuring, and its relevance in  the  reduction  of  the  effects  of  recidivism.   Psychologists   and  counsellors  will  be enlightened on the likely causes of recidivism and factors associated with it. They will also know better the most intervention programme like NEFCRIP. Psychologists, counselors as well as social  workers are  expected  to help  inmates  to build  their  self esteem  and  self- efficacy, teach them new skills and life coping strategies. Inmates will be taught that events are not really causes of behavioural problems but the interpretations given to these events. Through constant  communication  with the inmates, the psychologists  and counsellors can make referral cases or report accordingly to the judiciary for inmates who may show evidence of change as the case may be.

More importantly,  students will benefit from the findings.  Inmates  who may  gain from the programme may become agents for change among in-school adolescents who may likely want to toe the path of violence as a means  for survival.  A deeper  knowledge  of recidivism and its psychological implication both to the offender and the entire society will be   learnt   by   students   when   the   findings   are   published.    Through   psychological services/counselling,  campaigns,  seminars,  presentations  and  workshops  students  and  the general public will be sensitized on the dangers of recidivism as wells as the dangers of our attitude towards the released from prisons.

Nongovernmental agencies and churches will become aware through workshops and seminars on effect of an intervention programme that is cognitive based which is capable of

reducing recidivism among inmates. In addition to donation of relief materials, the churches and NGO’s will begin to engage regular services of psychologists  and  counsellors in the prisons. This will help to reduce recidivism to the barest minimum.

Through seminars and workshops, policy makers, Federal and State government will learn to place more care and attention to the needs of the prisoners by providing adequate and effective  intervention  programmes  like  NEFCRIP.  The  findings  will  contribute  in  the formulation of government policies and establishment of prevention programmes to reduce recidivism  among  inmates.  In addition,  it will create awareness  on the increasing  rate of recidivism  among  inmates  in the so many prisons.  This will  enable the government  and policy makers to intervene before it escalates.

The findings  of this study will be a useful addition of knowledge  to the  already existing literature on the various variables and theories it researched. The findings bring to the  fore  empirical  evidence  of the  increasing  rate of recidivism;  factors  associated  with recidivism and its effects as well as some appropriate  intervention  strategies for handling recidivism. It also brings to limelight the efficacy of NEFCRIP on the self-esteem and self- efficacy towards reducing recidivism.

The findings bring to the fore empirical evidence of the increasing rate of recidivism and its effects as well as some appropriate intervention strategies for handling recidivism.

Scope of the Study

The study covered inmates who are recidivist in prisons in the zone G of the prison service in Nigeria. The choice of the inmates in the Zone was based on the fact that they have high  number  of  re-offending  inmates  that  may  be  attributable  to  cultural  unfairness  to imprisonment.

The  primary  focus  of  the  study  was  on  the  effect  of  need-focused   cognitive restructuring  intervention  programme  on  the  self-esteem  and  self  efficacy  of  recidivist inmates in Nigeria prisons taking into account gender as a moderating variable. The study looked   at   the   components   and   attributes   of   self-esteem   and   self-efficacy   that   are conceptualized  in relation to general capacity to value one self  and resist re-offending  or recidivism on release from prison custody.

The need-focused  cognitive restructuring  covered  identifying/recognizing  irrational thoughts or cognitive scripts (schema), learning to challenge them and  learning to replace irrational  thought  patterns  (schema)  with  more  beneficial  and  healthier  rational  scripts (schema). The irrational thoughts targeted were those that engender criminal behaviours and mindsets  and  those  that  could  encourage  recidivism  among  inmates.  The  need-focused cognitive restructuring intervention programme used desensitization, role playing, cognitive rehearsal, self-talk, validity testing, thought stopping, dispelling irrational beliefs and forceful statements as its mode.

Research Questions

The following research questions served as guide to this study.

1.      What is the effect of need-focused cognitive restructuring intervention programme

(NEFCRIP) on self-esteem of recidivist inmates in Nigeria prisons?

2.      What is the effect of NEFCRIP on the self-efficacy of recidivist inmates in Nigeria prisons?

3.      What is the difference in the effect of NEFCRIP on inmates’ self-esteem based on gender?

4.      What is the difference in the effect of NEFCRIP on inmates’ self-efficacy based on gender?

5.      What is the interaction effect of treatment and gender on self-esteem of recidivist inmates in Nigeria prisons?

6.      What is the interaction effect of treatment and gender on self-efficacy of recidivist inmates in Nigeria prisons?

Hypotheses

The following formulated hypotheses were tested at 0.05 levels.

H01        The effect  of need-focused  cognitive  restructuring  intervention  programme  on  the mean self-esteem scores of recidivist inmates is not significant.

H02        There  is no  significant  effect  of need-focused  cognitive  restructuring  intervention programme on the mean self-efficacy scores of recidivist inmates.

H03      The difference in the effect of NEFCRIP on inmate’s self-esteem mean scores based on gender is not significant

H04     There is no significant effect of NEFCRIP on inmate’s self-efficacy mean scores based on gender

H05        The interaction effect of treatment and gender on self-esteem of recidivist inmates is not significant.

H06         There is no significant interaction effect of treatment and gender on self-efficacy of recidivist inmates.

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