EFFECTS OF THREE SINGLE ADSORBENTS (SACCHARAMYCES CEREVISAE BENTONITE AND KAOLIN) ON MYCOTOXIN-CONTAMINATED FEED IN ARBOR ACRE BROILERS

ABSTRACT

The study was carried out to determine the effect of three single adsorbents on mycotoxin- contaminated feed in arbor acre broilers. Specifically, the study determined the effect of three single adsorbents on mycotoxin-contaminated feed on feed intake, weight gain, proximate composition, hematology and histopathology in arbor acre broilers. The study adopted an experimental research design and was guided by six research questions and two hypotheses.  The experiment  was conducted  in the Agricultural  Education  Poultry  farm,  University  of Nigeria, Nsukka. The population of the study was 100 day old chicks from Agrited farm, Ibadan, Nigeria. A sample size of 80 birds were randomly selected and distributed into five groups: Positive control (contaminated and untreated) (P0), negative control ( fresh feeds)(N0), T1(cont+ saccharamyces cerevisae), T2(cont+bentonite) and T3( cont+kaolin). Each group had four replicates with 4 birds each giving a total of 16 birds in each group.16 bags of top finisher were wetted and left to be contaminated, after a period of three weeks, the feed were divided into four equal parts, one part was treated with saccharamyces cerevisae, the second with bentonite ,and the third treated with kaolin while the fourth was left untreated. The contaminated feed was subjected to laboratory analysis to determine the mycotoxin present in the feed and also proximate composition analysis. At the end of eight weeks, data on feed intake, weight gain, hematology and histopathology was taken.  Data collected  was analyzed  using mean  and ANOVA.  The mean was used to answer research questions 2-6 while ANOVA was used to test the hypotheses. The results of the findings showed that negative control group( fresh feed) had the highest weight gain (1.87kg) followed by T1(cont+saccharomyces  cerevisae)  with  a  weight  of  1.21kg.  Negative  control  group  had  the highest feed intake of 0.75kg followed by T2 (cont+bentonite) with 0.68kg. Kaolin had more effect on the hematology of the birds while all the adsorbents had less significant effect on the histology of the birds. Based on the results, it was concluded that each adsorbents had a different effect on the mycotoxins present in the feed as seen in the birds, specifically bentonite improved feed intake, saccharamyces cerevisae improved weight gain and kaolin improved blood. It is recommended that adsorbents  are effective  in the treatment  of mycotoxin  contamination  in feed and also a

mixture of more than one adsorbent will be more effective.

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Background of the Study

CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION

Agriculture  is the cultivation  of crops,  rearing  of animals  for man’s  consumption  and production of raw materials for industries. Agriculture continues to be the most important sector of the Nigerian economy in terms of provision of employment in spite of its declining contribution to the nation’s foreign exchange earnings (Adene and Oguntade, 2016).About 65% of Nigerians are estimated to depend on agriculture for their livelihood while 34.8% of the GDP and over 38% of the non-oil foreign exchange earnings, are contributed by the agricultural sector (Adene and Oguntade, 2016). Although, the sector has suffered much neglect by the Federal Government since the discovery of petroleum in commercial quantity in 1958, its importance cannot be over emphasized  in the Nigerian economy  (Adene  & Oguntade,  2016) .The agricultural  sector  has various sub-sectors such as poultry, aquaculture, horticulture etc. The poultry sub-sector is the most commercialized (capitalized) of all the sub-sectors of the Nigeria’s agriculture (Adene & Oguntade, 2016)

Poultry  production  is an important  agribusiness  enterprise  that has  great potentials  for providing additional income to farming communities educated, uneducated, employed and unemployed. Poultry refers to domesticated birds raised for meat, table and fertile eggs (Ugwuoke,

2017). Poultry is a rich source of protein to human diet, provides income to man and raw materials to industries etc. According to Givens (2005) foods derived from animal products are important sources of nutrients in human diet and play an increasing role in the human nutrition. The types of poultry that are commonly reared in Nigeria are chickens, ducks, guinea fowls, turkeys, pigeons

and more recently ostriches. Those that are of commercial or economic importance in poultry

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tradeare chickens, guinea fowls and turkeys, amongst which the chickens predominate (Adene & Oguntade, 2016).Chickens are of various types which include broilers, layers, cockerels etc

Broilers are chicken raised for their nutritious meat which has a higher biological value

than  plant  proteins.    Broiler  production  provides  quality  animal  proteins  and generates  quick

returns on investment and employment. The rate of growth of broiler chickens depends on the feed

which they are fed with.Feeds are very important components of poultry production, because they

influence the total growth performance of birds.

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Broiler feeds are of different forms such as mash, pellets, crumbles and scratch grains. Mash is a nutritionally complete poultry in a ground form. Pellets consist of a mash that has been compressed  and  molded  into  pellet  in  a pellet  mill.  Unlike  mash,  where  the  ingredients  can separate in shipment and the poultry can pick among the ingredients, the ingredients in a single pellet stay together while the poultry eat the pellets (Blair, 2008). Crumbles are pellets that have been sent through rollers to break them into granules. This is often used for chick feed. Scratch grain (or scratch feed) consists of one or more varieties of whole, cracked, or rolled grains. Scratch grains are often scattered on the ground as they are tiny and can’t be fed in troughs, hoppers, or tube feeders. Hence, a large particle size is desired.  They consist only of grains and as a result, scratch grains are not a complete ration, and are used to supplement the balanced ration (Gail,

2012). The form of feed affects the rate of feed intake, digestibility, weight gain, feed conversion

rate etc.Irrespective of the form feed is in, they are made from same materials, such as corn, millet, wheat, and barley etc. These materials are highly susceptible to mycotoxin contamination when exposed to moulds and humid environment. Poor harvesting practices, improper drying, handling,

packaging, storage, and transport conditions contribute to fungal growth and increase the risk of

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mycotoxin production. Contamination of agricultural commodities by fungi results not only in the degrading   of nutrient content but also cause a health hazard for human, livestock and poultry birds. The most notable importance of contamination of agricultural commodities by toxigenic fungi is the buildup of mycotoxin concentrations to injurious levels in food and feeds (Perrone,

2007). It therefore becomes important that poultry feed raw materials are carefully selected and formulated poultry feed stored properly to avoid exposure to moulds contamination which leads to mycotoxin contamination.

The word “mycotoxin”  is derived from “mykes” which stands for fungi and “toxicon” which stands for poison (Harper, 2015). Mycotoxins are secondary metabolites produced naturally by filamentous fungi, which are considered toxic substances and as such are harmful when present in food for humans and feed for animals leading to economic losses. Bennett and Klich (2003) defined mycotoxins as “natural products of  fungi that evoke a toxic response when introduced in low concentrations to higher vertebrates and other animals by a natural route” They are frequently found in products such as nuts, corn, rice, and several other cereals, which can be contaminated in the field during harvest or during storage. Most mycotoxins represent a considerable risk to human and animal health because of their toxigenic, nephrotoxic, hepatotoxic, carcinogenic, immunosuppressive and mutagenic characteristics. The classification of mould metabolites as antibiotics or mycotoxins is based on their toxicity or beneficial effect in treating diseases. Some mould metabolites that were initially considered to be antibiotics (e.g.citrinin) were subsequently found to be highly toxic, and are currently classified as toxins (Richard,2007). Mycotoxins are abiotic hazards produced by certain fungi that can grow on a variety of crops. Their prevalence in plant  raw materials  are  relatively  high,  however,  the concentration  of mycotoxins  in finished

products is usually lower than in raw materials.Mycotoxic contamination of crops can occur in the

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field, during transportand storage Biosynthesis of mycotoxins which are secondarymetabolites is related to some internal factors e.g. genetic potential of fungi and substrate or to factors under which a crop is grown, harvested and stored e.g.oxygen (usually fungi need at least 1-2% O 2). Other factors include, humidity  (usually fungi growat 13-18% moisture),  temperature  (usually fungi grow at 20 o C-30 o C),physical damages by insects and other stress factors. However, some toxigenic fungi can grow also at lowtemperatures near or below freezing such as some species of Fusarium associatedwith alimentary toxic aleukia.

The toxic effect of mycotoxins on animal and human health is referred to as mycotoxicosis, the severity of which depends on the toxicity of the mycotoxin, the extent of exposure, age and nutritional status of the individual or animal and possible synergistic effects of other chemicals to which the individual or animal is exposed. Mycotoxicosis, which can occur in both industrialized and developing  countries arises when environmental,  social and economic conditions combine with meteorological conditions (humidity, temperature) which favour the growth of moulds. Mycotoxicosis in humans or animals are characterized as food or feed related, non-contagious, non-transferable, non-infectious, and non-traceable to microorganisms other than fungi. Clinical symptoms  usually  subside  upon  removal  of  contaminated  food  or  feed.  A  wide  range  of commodities can be contaminated with mycotoxins both pre- and post-harvest commodities (Binder,Tan,Chin,Handl and Richard,2007).

Since the study on mycotoxin began in 1960, a number of mycotoxins have been identified. However, aflatoxins, ochratoxins, trichothecenes, zearalenone, fumonisins, tremorgenic toxins, and

ergot alkaloids are the mycotoxins of greatest agro-economic importance. Some molds are capable

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of producing more than one mycotoxin and some mycotoxins are produced by more than one

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fungal species. Often more than one mycotoxin is found on a contaminated substrate. Mycotoxins

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occur more frequently in areas with a hot and humid climate, favourable for the growth of molds, they can also be found in temperate zones. Exposure to mycotoxins is mostly by ingestion, but also occurs by the dermal and inhalation routes. Mycotoxins have various acute and chronic effects on humans  and  animals  (especially  monogastrics)  depending  on  species  and  susceptibility  of  an animal within a species. Ruminants have, however, generally been more resistant to the adverse effects of mycotoxins. This is because the rumen microbiota is capable of degrading mycotoxins. The economic impact of mycotoxins includes loss of human and animal life, increased health care

and veterinary care costs, reduced livestock production, disposal of contaminated foods and feeds,

and investment in research and applications to reduce severity of the mycotoxin problem. Among

the hundreds of known mycotoxins, aflatoxins, citrinin, penicillic acid, tenuazonic acid, ochratoxin

A, deoxynivalenol, fumonisins, fusarin C, fusaric acid, and zearalenone are considered the types

that most contaminate cereal grain. The majority of the mycotoxins in these groups are produced

by three fungal genera: Aspergillus, Penicillium and Fusarium.

Most fungi are aerobic  and are found almost everywhere  in extremely  small quantities due to the minute size of their spores. They consume organic matter wherever humidity and temper

ature are  sufficient.  Where  conditions  are  right,  fungi proliferate into colonies and  mycotoxin

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levels become high. The production of toxins depends on the surrounding intrinsic and extrinsic

environments  and  these  substances  vary  greatly  in  their  toxicity,  depending  on  the  organism

infected and its susceptibility, metabolism, and defense mechanisms. Contamination of food and

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agricultural  commodities  by various  types of toxigenic  molds  is a serious  nonetheless  widely neglected problem. Regardless of extensive research, mould infestation still remains a challenging

problem (Munkvold, 2003). It has been estimated by Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO)

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that worldwide, approximately 25% of the crops get contaminated by moulds and are affected by mycotoxin (Rice   and Ross, 1994 in Parvathi, Rajender and Krishna,2017). The extent of mycotoxicosis can be detected through Histopathology.

Histopathology is a branch of pathology which deals with the study of disease in a tissue section. The tissue undergoes a series of steps such as slicing and staining before it reaches the examiner’s desk to be thoroughly examined microscopically to arrive at a particular diagnosis. To achieve this, it is important that the tissue must be prepared in such a manner that it is sufficiently thin to be examined  microscopically  and dated  (Bancroft  and  Stevens,  2002). Histopathology remains one of the major tools of diagnosis in mycology. The major advantages of histopathology

are speed, low cost and the ability to provide a presumptive identification of the infecting fungus

as well as demonstrating the tissue reaction. It usually provides essential information before the

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fungus can be isolated in a mycology laboratory. A number of histological stains are available that are routinely used to visualize fungi in tissue sections (Richardson, 2005).While some of these are special fungal stains, others are of more general use and still help to observe the tissue reactions and/or the infecting fungus. The haematoxylin-eosin (H and E) stain is the most common stain for the histopathologic evaluation of tissue sections. The utility of histopathology in the diagnosis of infectious disease has been established. Microscopic identification of a pathogen by its morphological  features  on staining  continues  to  be the mainstay  of diagnostic  histopathology (Gupta, Bhalla, Khurana and Singh, 2009). Some tissue samples that are usually subjected to histology include tissues samples from cardiac muscle, liver, spleen, kidney, etc. Other ways to

determine mycotoxicosis is analysis of hematological parameters.

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Hematological parameters such as red blood cells (RBC), white blood cell (WBC) counts and hemoglobin (Hb) concentration are tightly regulated traits with high clinical relevance. In as much as much as mycotoxin  affects the blood  and organs  of animals,  it is also necessary  to evaluate the feed fed to the animals to know whether their compositions  has been altered by mycotoxins. This is because feeds consumed by birds determine the quality of animal blood. The quality of feed can be determined using proximate analysis.

Proximate analysis refers to the determination of the major constituents of feed and it is used to assess if a feed is within its normal compositional parameters or somehow been adulterated. This method partitioned nutrients in feed into 6 components: moisture, ash, crude protein, crude fibre, ether extracts (fats) and carbohydrates.  With the discovery of mycotoxins, attempts have been made to curb and eliminate them from poultry feeds.

The contamination of feed with mycotoxins is a continuing feed safety issue, leading to economic losses   in   animal   production   (Wu,   2007).   Consequently,   a   variety   of   methods   for   the decontamination of feed has been developed, but the addition of mycotoxin detoxifiers to the feed is the most commonly-used  method  (Jard,  Liboz, Mathieu,  Guyonvarc’h,    and Lebrihi(2011); Kolosova and Stroka, 2011). The additives used for this purpose can be divided into two groups: binders and modifiers. Mycotoxin binders aim to prevent the absorption of the mycotoxins from the intestinal tract of the animal by adsorbing the toxins to their surface and reduce toxicity. Mycotoxin binders are generally clay (inorganic) or yeast-derived (organic) products (Kolosova and Stroka, 2011). There have been several methods used to prevent or treat mycotoxicosis in animals,  but  the  usage  of  certain  special  feed  additives,  known  as  mycotoxins  adsorbents  of

detoxifying agents is the most common one. Some of these adsorbents include bentonite, kaolin,

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zeolite, saccharamyces cerevisae etc. Bentonite is a rock formed of highly colloidal and plastic clays composed mainly of montmorillonite, a clay mineral of the smectite group, and is produced by in situ devitrification (a process by which a glassy substance changes their structure into that of a  crystalline  solids)  of  volcanic  ash(WHO,  2005)  .  In  addition  to  montmorillonite,  bentonite contains feldspar, cristobalite, and crystalline quartz (WHO,2005). The special properties of bentonite are an ability to form thixotrophic gels with water, an ability to absorb large quantities of water, and a high cation exchange capacity.Major uses of bentonite include binding foundry sand in moulds, absorbing grease, oil, and animal wastes, pelletizing taconite iron ore, improving the properties of drilling mud, as a bonding agent in animal feeds, clarifying wine and vegetable oil, and purifying wastewater (WHO, 2005). Other binders include kaolin, zeolite etc

Kaolin or china clay is a mixture of different minerals. Its main component is kaolinite; in addition,  it  frequently  contains  quartz,  mica,  feldspar,  illite,  and  montmorillonite.  Kaolinite isformed   by  rock   weathering   and  is  made   up  of  tiny  sheets   of  triclinic   crystals   with pseudohexagonal morphology. It has some cation exchange capacity. It is used as adsorbents in feeds, as well as in paper production, where it is used as a coating material, in paint making, rubber, plastic, ceramic, chemical, pharmaceutical, and cosmetics industries. Saccharomyces cerevisiae (commonly known as baker’s yeast) is a single-celled eukaryote that is frequently used in scientific research. Saccharomyces cerevisiae, commonly known as bakers or brewer’s yeast, is a unicellular fungus and a classic model organism used extensively for research in genetics and molecular biology. It is also used for the industrial production of some biopharmaceuticals (Ishtar Snoek and Steensma, 2007). S. cerevisiae is an attractive model organism due to the fact that its genome has been sequenced, its genetics are easily manipulated, and it is very easy to maintain in

the lab.

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In Nsukka, most farmers are not aware of the existence of mycotoxins neither are they aware of the remedies to put in place when their feeds are contaminated with mycotoxins. When a farmer’s feed is contaminated with mould maybe as a result of improper storage, he just goes ahead to dispose them, thereby having losses instead of gain, this sometimes discourages farmers from venturing into poultry production.  This study therefore is meant to enlighten individuals including farmers in Nsukka on the existence of mycotoxins and the effect of using adsorbents (treatments) on the contaminated feed in order to maximize profit.

Statement of the Problem

Mortality in birds has been a naturally occurring phenomenon, and these deaths have been attributed to a number of reasons ranging from the species of birds, the environment,  disease outbreak,  and  type  of  feed  among  others.  These  deaths  reduce  farmers’  income  thereby discouraging some farmers from going into poultry production. Poultry feeds has its raw materials made up of cereals such as maize, wheat, etc, these raw materials are in most cases harvested and stored over a period of time before they are processed into feeds, during this period of storage a number of microbial activities take place including mould contamination. It is also important to note that produced feeds when stored over a long period of time are also prone to mould contamination.

Fungus development in field crops or in storehouses could lead to nutritional and  physical loss, as well as to mycotoxins production, which could be extremely harmful for humans and animals.  Incidence of mycotoxins is a major problem encountered by poultry industry as in most cases low grade feed ingredients  are used in the formulation.  Livestock  feed  quality  may be

affected by various mycotoxin contaminants. Contaminated cereals that are not healthy for human

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consumption usually find their ways into the animal feed manufacturing companies for use in feed production. Farmers lack information on the existence of mycotoxins as an effect of prolonged storage of feed they also lack information on the possible ways of improving the feed quality in case of contamination which includes treatment with adsorbents. Literature have also shown that there has been no study done in Nigeria specifically in Nsukka on effects of adsorbents on hematology, histology and proximate composition of mycotoxin- contaminated feed in poultry birds. This study therefore is intended to find out the effects of three single adsorbents (Saccharamyces cerevisae, Bentonite & Kaolin) on mycotoxin-contaminated feed on the growth performance,  proximate  composition  hematology,  histopathology  of  mycotoxin-  contaminated

feed in arbor acre broiler birds..

Purpose of the Study

The general purpose of the study was to identify the effect of three single adsorbents (Saccharamyces cerevisae, Bentonite and Kaolin) on mycotoxin-contaminated feeds in Abor acre broilers.  Specifically, the study sought to determine:

1.   the mycotoxins present in the contaminated feed and treated feeds.

2.   effects of three single adsorbents on mycotoxin-contaminated feed on feed intake in arbor acre broilers.

3.   effects of three single adsorbents on mycotoxin-contaminated feed on weight gain in arbor acre broilers.

4.    effects of three single adsorbents on proximate composition of mycotoxin- contaminated

feeds (moisture, ash fiber, fat, crude protein& carbohydrate) in arbor acre broilers.

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5.   effect  of three adsorbents  on mycotoxin-contaminated  feed  on histology  (liver, spleen, kidney, heart& bursar of fabricus) in arbor acre broilers.

6.   effect of three adsorbents on mycotoxin-contaminated feed on n hematological parameters (packed cell volume(PCV), Red blood cell count (RBC), Hb(Haemoglobin)& White blood cell (WBC)).

Research questions

The following research questions guided the study

1.   What are the mycotoxins present in the contaminated feed and treated feeds

2.   What are the effects of three single adsorbents on mycotoxin-contaminated feed on feed intake in arbor acre broilers?

3.   What are the effects of three single adsorbents on mycotoxin-contaminated feed on weight gain in arbor acre broilers?

4.   What are the effects of three single adsorbents on proximate composition of mycotoxin- contaminated feed in arbor acres?

5.   What  are  the  effects  of  three  single  adsorbents  on  mycotoxin-contaminated  feed  on histology in arbor acres?

6. What are the effects of three single adsorbents on mycotoxin-contaminated feed on hematology in arbor acre broilers?

Research hypotheses

The  study  was  guided  by  two  null  hypotheses  which  were  tested  at  0.05  level  of significance.

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H01      There is no significant difference in the means of the feed intake level of the birds in positive control, Saccharamyces cerevisae(T1), Bentonite(T2)& Kaolin(T3)

H02      There is no significant difference in the means of the weight gain level of the birds in positive control, T1, T2 &T3

Scope of the study

This study was carried out in the Department of Agricultural Education poultry farm, University of Nigeria Nsukka. The study was meant to determine the effect of three single adsorbents (Saccharamyces cerevisae, Bentonite and Kaolin) on mycotoxin-contaminated feeds in Arbor acre broilers. The main focus was on growth performance such as weight gain, proximate composition such as, hematological parameters such as red blood cells (RBC) and histology such as spleen. Arbor acre broilers were used for the experimental study.

Significance of the Study

The study has theoretical and practical significance. Theoretically, the study is of significance to production theory. Propounded by Adams Smith in 1776, production theory emphasized the relationship between inputs and outputs. The findings of this study will be of benefit to production theory, since a farmer’s main aim is to maximize profit, he expects that his inputs such as feeds will  yield  a huge  return  (a  weighty  bird).  Adsorbents  are  inputs  which  will  help  the  farmer maximize profit because instead of throwing the contaminated feed away and incurring a loss, he can treat the feed with adsorbents (input) to maximize output.

Practically, the findings of this study would be immensely beneficial to poultry farmers, lecturers/  teachers  of  agriculture,  veterinary  doctors,  extension  agents,  academic  researchers, poultry feed producers, health workers/inspectors, the government and the society at large. The

findings of the study on effect of three adsorbents (Saccharamyces cerevisae, Bentonite & Kaolin)

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on mycotoxin-contamonated feed in arbor acre would be beneficial to poultry farmers.   This is because the poultry farmers are those who make use of the feeds on their birds, therefore they need to be aware of the possibility that these feeds they purchase may be contaminated with mycotoxins and also determine the possible solutions to the treatment of these mycotoxins so as not to dispose their already contaminated feeds thereby maximizing cost and profit.Extension agents will help disseminate  these  information  to  the  poultry  farmers,  sensitization  programmes  can  also  be organized on radio and other means of communication to educate the farmers.

The lecturers of agriculture will benefit from the study on effect of three adsorbents (Saccharamyces cerevisae, Bentonite & Kaolin) on mycotoxin- contaminated feed in arbor acre. This is because they are one of the channels through which knowledge of agriculture get to the students.  Agricultural education is all encompassing in that an agricultural teacher can also be a poultry   farm   owner,therefore,   they   need   to   be   equipped   with   adequate   knowledge   on animal(poultry)  health  including  causes  of  diseases,  effects  of  these  diseases  on  poultry  and possible treatment  to improve animal health and maximize profit. The information from this study can also be infused into courses taught in agricultural education such as animal health and disease management,  animal nutrition, Anatomy and physiology  of farm animals among others. From these courses, the information on existence and treatment of mycotoxin-contaminated feed with adsorbents will get to the students who will act as extension agents in their various localities. Information from this study will get to the farmers through research done by the teacher and sensitization by extension agents.

The findings of the studyon effect of three adsorbents (Saccharamyces cerevisae, Bentonite

& Kaolin)  on mycotoxin-  contaminated  feed in arbor acre will benefit  the veterinary  doctors because the growth performance and study of organs (histology) of birds over a period of time

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helps  the  veterinary  doctors  identify  symptoms  of  mycotoxin  contamination,  make  accurate diagnosis and prescribe the correct treatment for each mycotoxin detected.

Extension agents disseminate information gotten from researches on agriculture to most nooks and crannies of the world, and as such they should have adequate information about animal health which may not be well known especially to those in the rural areas who would take extra precaution for storage of their feed and raw materials for feed production.

Feed producers are important element in poultry production, the findings of the study on effect of three adsorbents (Saccharamyces cerevisae, Bentonite & Kaolin) on growth performance, proximate composition, histology and hematology in mycotoxin- contaminated feedwould help the feed producers to be more careful in selecting the raw materials used in production of feeds and also understand the dangers of not storing properly preferably in a very dry environment to prevent the growth of moulds which thrive in humid environment  leading to mycotoxin contamination.

Academic researchers will benefit from the studyon effect of three adsorbents (Sc, B& K) on growth performance, proximate composition, histology and hematology in mycotoxin- contaminated  feed  by  having  the  knowledge  of  the  existence  of  mycotoxins,  its  causes  and treatment. Also they can embark on further research concerning more treatment

The health inspectors will benefit from the studyon effect of three adsorbents (Sc, B& K) on growth performance, proximate composition, histology and hematology in mycotoxin- contaminated feed by making sure that proceeds from the poultry are thoroughly examined for contaminations  before  they  are  sent  to  the  final  consumers.  This  can  be  determined  by  the histology of certain organs in the broilers. The society are the final consumers of the proceeds from

the poultry, therefore the findings of the study would enable them be more cautious of their health.

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