EXISTENTIALISM IN THE NOVELS OF BESSIE HEAD

ABSTRACT

The study examines the influence of the existentialist themes in the novels of Bessie Head. Various studies have been done on the works of Bessie Head, especially with particular focus on the concept of identity, the exilic  consciousness  and on literary commitment,  but none has analyzed, let alone  subjected  Maru, When Rain Clouds Gather and A Question of Power to the existentialist interpretation. The objective of this study is to explore the tremendous accuracy with which Bessie Head show- cases the conflict between the individual and society. The apartheid system has attacked the identity of Head’s characters and this informs the existential sensibility so discernible in her  oeuvre. The study adopts the analytical research design. The data collected through  content  analysis  is  coded  according  to  thematic  concerns,  the  mode  of characterization  and  the  vision of the author.  The  findings  reveal  that  being and becoming influence her commitment as reflected in her choice of characters that like her  are  cast  in the  in-between  space.  These  characters  shuttle  between  points  of inclusion and exclusion. The quest for a universal  identity that defies definition of race or tribe is shrouded in shackles of prejudice enshrined in the traditional outlook which must be dismantled  in order to attain  total liberty.  However,  this dream  is encumbered with a lot of challenges thus reflecting the difficulty of erasing cultural differences.  In  conclusion,  the  novels  are  discussed  from  a  largely  existentialist perspective of hope in a utopian society.

Chapter One

Introduction

1.1 Background to the Study

The African American and winner of the 1993 Nobel Prize in literature Toni Morrison,  speaks eloquently of what she calls “a sense of  rootedness”(339).  What Morrison  is referring  to,  is the  gut  sense  of belonging  to  a common  tradition  of historical   sensibility  that  binds  writers   of   different   background   and  different ideological  leanings.  For the  African-American  writers,  the legacy of slavery,  the throes of racial oppression,  and the macabre paradox of Jim Crow politics in a free democratic society constitutes the background of that common tradition.

Morrison  contends  that  for  the  African  writer,  his  sense  of  rootedness  is defined by his belonging to an ethnic and cultural group together with the sense of identity which it fosters and which invariably conditions  his creative  imagination. Writers  like  Achebe  have  the  Igbo  cultural  tradition,  Ngugi—the  kikuyu/Gikuyu culture,  P’bitek—the  Ugandan  Acoli  tradition  Kane—the  Islamic  tradition  of  the diallobe.

For Bessie  Head,  however,  Morrison  suggests  that  there  is this  inordinate sense of detachment  from the African cultural tradition because of  the  intervening forces of apartheid in her native South Africa. She does not  share in the ancestral sensibilities of an African homestead because she has not been allowed to develop root in any tradition.

The issue is her nativity; Bessie Head bore the burden of a double illegitimate birth: in 1937 she was conceived out of wedlock and, in apartheid argot, across the colour bar. Simply by being born, she transgressed the racial and gender edicts of her society, a deviance that portended the torments of her later life. In her thirteenth year, Head learned that the man and woman whom she had presumed to be her parents bore no biological relation to her. That year, the  South African state removed  her from foster parental care and placed her in an orphanage. It was only then that her origin was revealed to her and quoting Susan Gardner:

I was born on the 6th July 1937 in the Pietermaritzburg hospital….The reason for  my peculiar  birth  place  was  that  my mother  was  white,  and  she  had acquired me from a black man. She was judged insane and committed to the mental hospital while pregnant(95).

Head’s mother, Bessie Amelia Emery, came from an upper-class white South African   family   renowned   for   breeding   racehorses.   The   family’s   professional preoccupation  with  eugenics  may well  have  compounded  their  deep-seated  racial prejudices, when their daughter, on the rebound from a failed marriage, flouted racial and class taboos by entering into a sexual liaison with a black stable hand. When she fell pregnant, her parents had her locked away in a mental asylum on grounds of, in the words of Randolph Vigne, of “premature senile dementia” (65). Emery gave birth to Head in the asylum and, six years  later, in 1943, committed suicide there. Head never met her mother, nor did she  ever learn the name of her father, who fled the Emery estate without a trace.  By the age of thirteen, Head had known four sets of parents: her biological parents; the Afrikaans foster parents who returned her a week later because she  looked “strange”. According to Gillian Eilersen, “did the delicate

little fingernails have a brownish tinge? Were the wisps of hair too curly? The child is coloured,  in fact  quite  black  and  native  in appearance”(9);  the  mixed-race  foster parents into whose care she was delivered, and the South African state which, acting in loco parentis, removed the young girl from these second foster parents and placed her in an orphanage, as a ward of the state. Thus, from an early age, Head came to experience the family not as a natural form of belonging but as an unstable artifice, invented  and  reinvented  in  racist  terms,  and  conditional  upon  the  administrative designs of the nation-state. Elizabeth Odhiambo opines that:

…for  writers  like Kane,  Achebe,  Laye,  Soyinka  and  others  the  knowledge emerging and experienced by them is anchored in shared collective tribal and ethnic identity. For Head on the other hand, the emergent knowledge is one constructed  on  the  knife-edge  categories  of  race,  otherness  and  crippling alienation,  a  fact  which  discourages  any  kind  of  affinity  or  sympathetic rootedness(45).

Her estrangement from tradition placed her under relentless pressure to  improvise a sense of community and ancestry, in her life and writing alike. Sandra Paquet, in her analysis of Their Eyes Were Watching God by Zora Hurston and Tar Baby by Toni Morrison, emphasizes  the necessity of “knowing  oneself in ancestral terms” (508). Caroline Rooney has portrayed Head’s novel, A Question of Power, as situated at the “crossroads of dispossession” (118) – a  phrase that could be readily applied to her work as a whole.

The circumstances of Head’s birth are not the only forms of marginality she has to contend with: as a first generation coloured, an orphan, a changeling, a refugee,

a certified “mad woman”, and a single mother, she led a profoundly disinherited life on almost every front. Moreover, as a so—called coloured woman engaging with rural themes in Southern Africa, Head wrote without the sustenance of any literary lineage. Many of the fundamental criteria for social  membership—notably those of family, race, and nation—characteristically assume or involve the authority of blood-lineage. Because Head’s relationship to all these categories was so radically and traumatically liminal, she could never live the illusion of their naturalness. As such, her work offers radical  insight  into  the  contingencies  underlying  efforts  to  secure  membership  or exclusion from society on grounds of nature or ancestry.

There are demographic groups in South Africa—whites four million as at the height of apartheid. These whites are sub-divided into two subdivisions; the  greater percentage  refers  to  those  that  have  Dutch  ancestry,  the  Afrikaners.  The  second subdivision  comprises  the English and other European whites,  including the Jews. The second  group  is the coloured  comprising  off springs  of interracial  marriage, Asians—South  Koreans,  Chinese,  Indians,  Pakistanis—and  finally the Blacks,  the original owners of the land (25-30 million).   Racially, Bessie was a member of the Cape Coloured community. While the statutory definition of coloured under apartheid has shifted over time, they have been persistently riven with contradictions. The state has  variously  sought  to demarcate  the category coloured  on the basis of descent, percentage,  physical appearance,  language preference,  cultural criteria, and general acceptance  by the community.  Of all the racial groups circumscribed  by apartheid legislation,   coloured   have   been   most   frequently   represented   through   layered negotiations.  The  Population  Registration  Act  of  1950,  for  example,  defined  a coloured as, in the words of Balibar and Wallerstein, someone “who in appearance is

obviously not white or Indian and who is not a member of an aboriginal  race  or African  tribe”  (74).  And  yet she  never  felt  a part of the community  because for reasons of geography and gender the coloured community was never available to her as a secure ground for identity. Head was raised in a Natal missionary orphanage in a largely Indian environment, some thousand kilometres from the epicentre of coloured culture in the Cape. She moved to the Cape in 1960 at the age of twenty-three, but struggled to fit in. In an unpublished interview with Cecil Abrahams:

As a newcomer  to the Cape, I thought  I had found the ideal place for  my mixed race soul. But I quickly and painfully learned that if you were not fully grounded  in  the  colour  brown,  you  would  have  to  be  excluded  from  the community’s business and be ready to endure insult (4).

Head’s sense of familial and racial estrangement was intensified by the fact that, until the  age  of forty-two,  she  was  also  denied  the  moorings  of  nationality.  Her  first twenty-seven years were spent in South Africa as a disenfranchised coloured woman, and the next fifteen in Botswana where citizenship was withheld from her, forcing her to live as a stateless refugee. Thus Head’s identity was  circumscribed  on familial, racial, and national fronts by disinheritance, illegitimacy, and rootlessness.

In the face  of these  circumstances,  her  writing  and  life  in the  Botswanan village of Serowe were distinguished  by an unremitting  need to  reconceive herself outside the natural matrix of familial, racial, and national traditions that formed the very  grounds  of  her  ostracism.  Head’s  prose  is  peopled  largely  with  two  types: characters whose sense of belonging is an  unsettled  precarious achievement  rather

than  a birth right  and  characters  who  risk or  forfeit  their  inherited  privileges  by breaking with confining traditions.

The Historical Background of South African Existential Reality

The  principle  and  dynamics  of  the  racist  apartheid  ideology  may  not  be understood in full if one fails to understand the historical factors that gave rise to it. South Africa was colonized  by the English and Dutch in the seventeenth  century. “Apartheid”, an Afrikaans word meaning in the words of Megan Shore, “the state of being apart,” (36) was a system of racial segregation in South Africa enforced through legislation by the National Party (NP) governments,  the party  from 1948 to 1994, under which the rights of the majority black inhabitants were curtailed and Afrikaner minority rule was maintained.

Its history dates back to 1652, according to Barnabas Okolo, “when Jan Van Riebeeck, an official of the Dutch East Indian Company, in search of a “refreshment depot” for company ships sailing on the Indian route, arrived at  and settled in the Cape  of  Good  Hope”(30).  By1688  there  were  already  six  hundred  non-official European settlers, mainly farmers around the Cape and  from then onwards, in the words of Eric Walker, “the number kept increasing  steadily, and conflicts with the indigenous  Khoisan  people  over  territory  had  started”  (38).The  number  of  these immigrants was increased further by the influx of French Huguenots as well as whites of German extraction,  as the years  went by. In 1795, the British in the quest for colonies all over Africa, seized and annexed the Cape. Political and military conflicts between the Dutch settlers and the British over South African territory became rife.

One of the salient incidents in the history of apartheid in South Africa, apart from the numerous  bloody ethnic wars,  is the historic “Great Trek”  which  was a political  movement   embarked   upon  by  the  Afrikaner  farmers   in   1836  to  rid themselves of the encroachment of the British as well as to  secure enough land for pasture.  Prominent  among  the  grievances  of the  Afrikaners,  which  are also  what constitutes the germ of the apartheid  policy,  was the relative equality of treatment meted out alike to the Afrikaners and the  blacks, by the British administration. The Afrikaners thus dreamt, according to  Leo Marguard, of an “independent republican state in which there would be no equality between black and white” (9).The inward movement of the Afrikaners was met with stiff resistance from the indigenous Zulus, Swazis, Xhosas, Tswanas, Sothos, most of who had elaborately organized kingdoms complete with standing armies, but they all eventually fell to the superior arms of the Afrikaners. The discovery of diamonds in the area of the present-day Zimbabwe and Malawi escalated the conflict between the Afrikaners and the British imperialists as both  groups  went  into  the  scramble  for  Southern  Africa  with  renewed  vigour, culminating in a major Anglo-Boer war of 1899.The Afrikaners were to secure many concessions at the treaty that ended the war, one of which was the recognition of the equality  of  the  Afrikaners’   language  with  English.   These  conflicts   and  their accompanying  victories  had  a  tremendous  psychological  boosting  effect  on  the Afrikaners and played a crucial role in moulding their character. The racist character of the Afrikaner attitude came to the fore clearly in the words of Okolo, “both in 1902 and 1909 during the National Conventions of the four self-governing South African colonies, which ended with a final accord passed by the British Parliament known as the South African Act  of  1909  and which paved the way for the Union of South

Africa by 1910” (30). During the convention, the Boer colonies, namely,  Transvaal and Orange Free States, refused to grant franchise to the  non-European peoples in spite of the franchise that the latter enjoyed under the  colonial British in the Cape Province and by the Act of 1909.This juridical denial of the non-whites of voting and of being voted for in the 1910 constitution was thus the first act in the entrenchment of white racial domination in South Africa.

With  the  enactment  of  apartheid  laws  in  1948,  racial  discrimination  was institutionalized. Race laws touched every aspect of social life, including a prohibition of marriage between non-whites and whites, and the sanctioning of “white-only” jobs. In 1950, the Population Registration Act required that all South Africans be racially classified  into one of three categories:  white, black  (African),  or coloured  (mixed decent).  The coloured  category included  major  sub-groups  of Indians  and Asians. Classification into these categories was based on appearance, social acceptance, and descent. Non-compliance with the race laws were dealt with harshly. All blacks were required  to carry “Pass Books”  containing  fingerprints,  photo  and information  on access to non-black areas.

In 1951, the Bantu Authorities Act established a basis for ethnic government in  African  reserves,  known  as  “homelands.”  These  homelands  were  independent states to which each African was assigned by the government according to the record of origin (which was frequently inaccurate). All political rights, including voting, held by an African were restricted to the designated  homelands. The idea was that they would be citizens of the homelands, losing their citizenship in South Africa and any right  of  involvement  with  the  South  African  Parliament  which  held  complete

hegemony over the homelands. From 1976 to 1981, four of these homelands  were created, denationalizing nine million South Africans. Nevertheless, Africans living in the homelands needed passports to enter South Africa: aliens in their own country.

In 1953, the Public Safety Act and the Criminal Law Amendment Act  were passed, which empowered  the government to declare stringent states of emergency and increased penalties for protesting against or supporting the repeal of a law. The penalties  included  fines,  imprisonment  and  whippings.  In 1960,  a  large  group  of blacks in Sharpeville refused to carry their Passes; the government declared a state of emergency.  The emergency  lasted  for 156 days,  leaving 69 people  dead  and 187 people wounded.

The practical result of all these legislations has been the entrenchment of racial inequality and victimization, rendering the indigenous majority unstable and isolated. The aim of the “Pass Laws,” for instance, is to create a permanent state of paranoia in the blacks, and to condition them to fear and insecurity. The migrant labour system imposed  on them  breaks  down  the  cohesion  that  family  co-habitation  engenders. Okolo’s analysis supports this assertion when he says that:

…other  effects  of  (migrant  labour)  system  on  the  African  and  non-white population generally, are well-known. Such problems as the breakdown of the African family life due to the migrant system, the extreme poverty of Africans and the non-whites  groups… frustrations and  antagonism  caused by lack of respect,  absence  of  adequate  amenities   and  opportunities,   the  enforced separation of people of different races,  the economic imbalance, e.t.c are all inherent in the apartheid system (54).

The creation of Bantustans is to force blacks into these economically depleted zones and another ruse to keep them backwards in all areas of endeavour. The black man is not free to choose his life style. He is not free to raise a family and have an organic relationship with it devoid of spells of forced separations, or is he free to develop his physical, intellectual, moral and religious life as fully as he would. Above all, he is subject to a gamut of penalization, such as banning,  confinements, detention, police assaults  and  spells  of  imprisonment  for  the  least  infringement  of  the  apartheid decalogue. In the words of Horrell, et al, for example, “between June 1969 and June

1970, 380 persons were tried for infringing laws relating to the production of identity documents by Africans’’ (142). According to Patrick Wilmot:

…between 1960-67 there were 4.5 million pass laws convictions  and

120,000 convictions for refusal to be ejected from land or for strikes. Between 1952 and 1967, 1,000,000 strokes were impose on 200, 000 victims; in 1970 the police shot and killed 54 people and wounded 149, and 356 people died in prison. From June 1976 in Soweto to the time of writing (November 1976) over 600 Africans have been killed by the police,  and  the  killing  continues.  If,  as Fanon  says,  colonialism  is violence in its natural state, apartheid represents the most perfect form of colonialism in the history of the world (10).

The viciousness  of the system  can also  be seen in the famous  Sharpeville massacres  of 21st  March,  1960 in which, according  to Wilmot,  “sixty-nine  blacks were shot dead, and one hundred and eighty-six others wounded” (9). Still the most

gruesome of these massacres was to take place in July 1976 in which over six hundred school pupils protesting the imposition of Afrikaans language as a compulsory subject of study were cold-bloodedly murdered.

The composite effect of all these legalistic restrictions and brutalities is that the blacks exist as unfulfilled, frustrated, and alienated people, driven totally by forces outside their control. According to Wilmot:

Apartheid is a system of racial discrimination built atop an immense foundation of economic exploitation, political repression and cultural obliteration,  established  and maintained  by ruthlessly  organised  and executed violence of European against Africa (xi).

As a system, the components of apartheid reinforce each other, interpenetrate each other, and make the end product of its operation more intense  and fulsome in humiliation and terror. Apartheid as an evil policy sparked, according to Tom Lodge, “significant  internal resistance and violence,  and a long arm trade embargo  against South Africa”  (20).  Since  1950s,  a  series of uprising  and  protests  was  met  with banning of opposition and imprisoning of anti-apartheid leaders. As unrest spread and became more effective and militarised, state organisation responded with repression and violence. Along with the sanctions placed on South Africans by the international community,  this  made it increasingly difficult  for the government  to maintain the regime.

Apartheid reforms in the 1980s failed to quell the mounting opposition, and in

1990  according  to  the  British  Broadcasting  Coporation  News:  2  February  1990

President Fredrick Willem de Clerk began negotiations to end apartheid, culminating in multi-racial democratic elections in 1994, won by the African National Congress under Nelson Mandela.

This malaise in which the oppressed are trapped in South Africa is perhaps no better  expressed  than by one of the concepts  that run inter alia in Bessie  Head’s works,   “existential   issues”,   which   is   generally   perceived   as  a   condition   of estrangement  and  disharmony  characterized  by  an  absence  of  a  milieu  that  is conducive  for harmonious living. Head’s treatment on power  relationships as they inform  or  are  informed  by exile  identities  seeking  to  subvert  the  nation  are  the particular  concern  of  her  novels,  and  the  conclusions  to  these  issues  vary  in progression from novel to history.

Head always wanted to be able to treat her characters as humans rather than people belonging to any racially—determined  ideologies.  This desire to  have each person transcend racial loyalty, became, according to Huma Ibrahim, part of the exilic consciousness  expounded  by  Head”  (62).  It  was  this  profound  commitment  to humanity that constituted the fundamental basis of her focus in all her novels, short stories, and histories.

Definition and Analysis of Key Concept

This study will attempt a definition of my central concept—Existentialism in all its manifestations and move on to list the key themes. These themes in turn are to be investigated as they connect the writings of Bessie Head. There has never been a general agreement  on the definition of existentialism.  The term is  often seen as a

historical convenience as it was first applied to many philosophers in hindsight, long after they had died.

According  to  Steven  Crowell,  defining  existentialism  has  been  relatively difficult. A central proposition of Existentialism  is that existence  precedes essence, which means that the most important consideration  for  individuals is that they are individuals  –  independently  acting  and  responsible,  conscious  beings  (existed)  – rather than what labels, roles, stereotypes, definitions or other preconceived categories the individuals fit (essence). The actual life of the individual is what constitutes what could be called his true essence instead of there being an arbitrarily attributed essence others use to define him. Thus human beings, through their own consciousness, create their own  values  and determine  meaning to their lives. It is often claimed  in this context that people define themselves, which is often perceived as stating that they can wish to be something—anything,  a bird, for instance – and then be it. According to  most  existentialist  philosophers,  however,  this  would  constitute  an  inauthentic existence. Instead, the phrase should be taken to mean that people are defined only insofar  as they  act  and  that  they are  responsible  for  their  actions.  For  example, someone who  acts cruelly towards other people is, by that act, defined  as a cruel person.   Furthermore,   by  this  action  of  cruelty,   such  persons  are  themselves responsible for their new identity (cruel persons). This is as opposed to their genes, or human  nature, bearing the blame.  Existentialism  therefore,  may be defined  as the philosophical theory which holds that a further set of categories, governed by norms of authenticity,  is  necessary to grasp  human  existence.  Although  a highly diverse tradition of thought, seven themes can be identified that provide some sense of overall unity.  These  themes  include:  Dread,  Alienation,  Absurd,  Freedom,  Commitment,

Nothingness,  and Existence. These themes can then provide us with an  intellectual framework within which to discuss the novels of Bessie Head within the history of existentialism.  Our strategy  is to  stress  Bessie  Head’s  connection  with these  key existentialist concerns, which we introduce above. The themes come together in her work, although uncomfortable  in the wake of apartheid, Head was nevertheless the very  model  of  a  public  intellectual,   writing   tens  of  short  pieces  for  public dissemination  and  taking  resolutely  independent  and  often  controversial  stand  on major political events. Her writings are most clearly existentialist in character.

1.2      Statement of the Problem

Various scholars have studied Bessie Head’s works with particular focus on the concept of identity, and exilic consciousness and came up with varied views. Cecil Abrahams,  for instance,  opines  that  the circumstance  of Head’s  birth  propels  her search for identity that led to existential themes in her writing.  Corwin Mhalahlo, explores the perceived intricate relationship that exists between constructed identity, discrimination  and  violence  as  portrayed  in  Bessie  Head’s  trilogy  from  varying perspectives, including aspects of coloniality, materialist feminism and liminality. His major concern is with the  affinities that exist between identity, discrimination  and violence. Along the lines, John, La Rose examines the element of being and totality in Bessie Head’s A Question of Power. He argues that while Marxist criticism may be instructive  in  its  provocation  of  materialist  literary  analysis,  these  readings  may obfuscate pertinent discursive issues of individual ontology. The present study closely relates to La Rose’s in that it too, revolves around the question of being and becoming and how this informs individual commitment. La Rose’s view is also pertinent in that it recognises the need for further studies of Head’s work from varied perspectives; the

difference is that his argument is limited to A Question of Power only. Adding to the debate,  Ikenna  Dieke  argues  that  Head’s Maru, more  than A Question  of  Power, distils the very essence of her creative enterprise laced with an overriding concern for an investigation into the enigma of human prejudice. This is against  Lloyd Brown who  argues  that  “A  Question  of  Power  represents  a  touché  in  Head’s  literary achievement” (175). Huma Ibrahim regards the novel as the most important work in the novelists attempt to navigate the troubled waters of transnational identities and her exilic consciousness which she calls Head’s “point of engagement”(125).

From  the  above  instances,  it  is  evident  that  various  studies  have  been conducted on Bessie Head’s works. A lot may have been done about the writings of Bessie Head, but to the knowledge of this researcher, there is little or no evidence of the exploration  of existential  themes  in her works,  especially in  the three  novels. Bessie Head is one of the African writers to have dealt with  existentialism  in her fiction. In this respect, her novels, When Rain Clouds Gather, Maru and A Question of Power attain a tremendous accuracy in showing the  conflict between the individual and the society. The problem which this research recognizes, therefore, is that as all great writers, Bessie Head’s life and work has been examined by each generation of critics.  But  none  has  examined  existentialism  as  a large  topic  in her  novels  and devoted an entire development of it.

1.3   Scope of the Study

The study is confined  to the writings of Bessie  Head. With respect  to  the writings of Bessie Head, this research work focuses on the three novels of  Bessie

Head. The area of search is limited to investigating the themes of existentialism as it affects the socio-economic life of the characters and the vision of the writer.

1.4     Objectives of the Study

The general objective of this study is to subject the novels under consideration to the existentialist  theory.  In specific  terms, to explore  the tremendous  accuracy  Bessie Head has shown in using the themes of existentialism  to demonstrate  the conflict between  the individual  and society,  and to provide  possible  interpretations  of her novels based on adhering or violating the themes of absurdity, authenticity, alienation, freedom, dread and trembling.

1.5     Significance of the Study

Existential perspectives are found in literature to varying degrees since 1922. Authors   composed   literature   that   contained,   to   varying   degrees,   elements   of existential or proto-existential thought. Bessie Head is one of the African writers to have dealt with existentialism  in her fiction.  This study will  therefore  expose the reader to the deeper knowledge of Bessie Head’s fiction  guided by the existential theory. This is because; being alive challenges our basic needs and calls into question the  meaning  and  the  structure  of our  existence.  Head’s  selected  fiction,  with  its windows  into  the  thoughts  and  feelings  of  the  characters  it portrays  allows  us a glimpse into the minds of the characters. This study will be important to prospective researchers as it will provide reliable information to guide their further search. Also

through the knowledge of the close kinship between the individual, society and  the whole   domain   of  existence,   critics  and   interpreters   alike  will   experience  an enrichment of their experience. Analysts and readers alike will also benefit as new findings  from  Bessie  Head  has  become  a  subject  attracting  increasing  attention especially since her tragic demise  in 1986. The  fact that every conceivable  bit of earlier writing is being published is a testimony to the increasing recognition of the complexity of Head’s writing.

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