INFORMATION AND CONFLICT MANAGEMENT IN SELECTED OIL-PRODUCING COMMUNITIES OF THE NIGER DELTA FROM 1992-2013

ABSTRACT

The study investigated the role played by information in conflict management of the oil producing communities  of Gbaranmatu,  Kegbara-Dere  and Peremabri  communities  of the Niger Delta from

1992 to 2013.The study highlights information as a factor used to douse or aggravate conflicts in the oil  producing  communities  during  conflict  management  from  1992-2013.    In  carrying  out  this research, five research questions and purposes of study guided the study:  they concern the conflicts in the oil producing communities from 1992-2013; role   information played in these conflicts; information  sources   used  in conflict  management  in the  oil-producing  communities    during the period; factors militating against effective information in conflict management in the past  conflicts and strategies that could be used to improve information  in conflict management  in the Niger Delta. The study adopted the historical research design. The area of study is Gbaranmatu, Kegbara-Dere and Peremabri communities of the Niger Delta. The population for the study is 44,488, which has 14,833 for  Gbaranmatu,  19960  for  Kegbara-Dere  and  9,655  for  Peramabiri  community.The  population elements include chiefs, community chairmen, women leaders, religious leaders and youth leaders of the  three  communities.  Purposive  sampling  was  used  to  select31  respondents  for  the  interview sessions, and the criteria used for selecting the respondents were: they had lived in the communities for the past twenty years, they were eye witnesses to the conflicts in the communities and had served and  still  serving  in the  community  leadership.  The  instrument  for data collection  was  interview schedule for the key players in conflict management of the oil producing communities, journalist, a member of civil society, and an oil company representative. Data was also collected using a focus group discussion schedule. Data collection from documentary sources was carried out with the aid of a documentary analysis guide. Instrumentss were validated by three lecturers from the Department of Library and Information  Science,  Faculty of Education, University of Nigeria, Nsukka. Data was collected  from respondents  by trained  research  assistants  and analyzed  qualitatively with  content analysis. The presentation and analysis of data showed that there were conflicts related to information and the oil industry in the communities  covered  from 1992  to 2013  andinformation  played  both positive and negative roles in the conflicts of Gbaranmatu, Kegbara-Dere and Peremabri communities of  the  Niger  Delta.  The  major  sources  of  information  during  conflict  management  were  both traditional  and  modern  media.  Factors  militating  against  dissemination  of information  in conflict management were the riverine terrain, misinformation, rumor, lack of media presence, lack of information  officers and information centres and lack of communication  facilities. The barriers to information in the conflict management of the communities include lack of trust in the government, oil company and its staff, and the community leaders. The strategy all the communities preferred was the town  crier;  other  strategies  they said  they will  prefer  were  the  use  of dialogue,  forums  for discussion by both the oil company and the communities. The study concludes by placing effective information at the heart of the strategy to address conflicts and the need for the oil companies to be more  conscientious  in  disseminating  information  to  the  oil  producing  communities.  Information should be used as a driver for positive social change, and positioning communities at the centre of the information flow will help build a firm foundation for strong oil-producing communities.

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

Background of the Study

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Historically,  it is evident  that  information  has been the  essential  resource of conflict management, especially in developing and diverse countries like Nigeria where oil has generated more conflicts than gains. The struggle for the control of oil wealth by the indigenous population has a long history dating back to 1966 when the late Isaac Adaka Boro, attempted secession. On

23 February 1966, Isaac Jasper Adaka Boro of the Niger Delta Volunteer Service (NDVS), made up of 159 youths, took up arms against the Nigerian state as a result of the injustice, marginalization, and political exclusion suffered by the Ijaws and other Niger Delta indigenes in the immediate post-colonial Nigeria  (Boro, 1967). This marked the beginning of conflicts in the Niger Delta.   It has been sustained  since then  with the agitation  taking different  forms  and dimensions (Boro, 1967). The crises of Ogoni (1994/95) Ijaw/Ilaje (1998-2000), Odi (1998/99), Warri  (Urhobo/Itsekiri,  1952,  1981,1987,  1997-2002),  Ogbe-ijaw/Itsekiri  (between  1995  and

2004) are just a few of the violent crises which led to the death of many people, staffers of oil companies, members of the Nigerian police force, the destruction of properties, and the loss of production time and revenue, both to oil companies and to the Nigerian economy at large  Okoh (2002).

Oil  was  first  discovered  in  commercial  quantities  in  1956  at Oloibiri  in  the present Bayelsa State of the Niger Delta of Nigeria. The Niger Delta of Nigeria is home to Nigeria’s petroleum industry with Abia, Akwa Ibom, Bayelsa, Cross River, Delta, Edo, Imo, Ondo and Rivers as oil-producing states; however Bayelsa, Delta and Rivers states account for the bulk of

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Nigeria’s oil production. The major oil companies in the area include Shell-BP, Exxon-Mobil, Elf Aquitane, Chevron-Texaco, Eni-Agip, and TotalFina Elf. (Iwayemi, 2006). Over the past five decades, about 1,182 exploration wells have been drilled in the Delta basin, and about 400 oil and gas fields of varying sizes have been documented.(Obaje,2009).  The operations of the oil companies are principally organized as joint ventures with the Nigeria National Petroleum Corporation (NNPC).  Nigeria earns over 90 percent of its foreign exchange and over 80 percent of government revenue from the petroleum proceeds of the Niger Delta. Foreign firms own up to

40 percent of the petroleum in Nigeria, with companies such as Shell, Agip, Chevron, Mobil and

Total operating in majority of oil fields. (Thisday,2004).

The  people  in  the  oil  producing  communities   of  the  Niger  Delta  are  a  diverse amalgamation of 26 ethnic groups with an estimated population of about 31 million in about 800 communities (Niger Delta Environmental Survey, 2005). The major ethnic groups in the area include the Ibos, Ijaws, Urhobos, Ogonis, Itshekiri, Isokos, Ibibios, Efiks, Binis, Ikweres, Kalabaris, and Okrikans. More than two thirds of the Niger Delta people live in the rural areas.

Prior  to  the  activities  of  oil  and  gas  industries,the  oil-producing  communities  had abundant and diverse natural resources,   good agricultural  lands, coupled with flourishing  oil palm  trees,  rubber  trees  and  other  economic  crops.  The  forests  of these  communities  were extensive  with  all  kinds  of  animals  and  plants  (Whitemen,  1982).  The  forests  of  these communities provided important sources of food and income to the local people; for instance mangrove has over seven major uses such as medicines, dyes, and thatch. Food species such as monkeys or periwinkles were also abundant. Herbal medical practice and other traditional occupations such as fishing, soap making, alcohol distillation, canoe carving, mat weaving, etc flourished  (Niger  Delta  Environmental  Survey,  2003).  The  ecology  of  the  communities  is

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characterized by vast flood plains built up by the accumulation of sedimentary deposits washed down by the Niger and Benue Rivers. The areas are criss-crossed with numerous rivers, streams, tributaries creeks and creeklets. The vegetation of the areas is characterized by the presence of sandy coastal ridge barriers, brackish or saline mangrove forest, fresh water swamp forest and tropical rain forest. The area is part of the largest wetland in West Africa and one of the largest mangrove forests in the world (Derefaka, 2003).  In the freshwater swamp forests, raffia palm, mango,  ogbono  (bush  mango;  a  common  food  ingredient  in  the  local  diet  and  sold  across Nigeria), land snails, and other products were abundant (Awobajo, 1981).

In the perception of the people, Ogoni communities like Bori were relatively peaceful before the discovery of oil.  According to Pa Jim Beeson Saro-Wiwa “We were living in peace before Shell came. We were sharing  our forests with animals  and monkeys,  but when Shell came, they started setting one community against another. ..before  you knew it, they started killing our people”(Social Development Integrated Centre, 2009). Since the introduction of the petroleum  industry,  these  communities  have  been  characterized  by deprivation  and  conflict, which has adversely affected the communities, the oil industry and the nation. The social and economic conditions in these oil-producing communities today are appalling. Despite the vast oil wealth, the communities remain poor because oil production has destroyed the environment and the livelihood of the people. Although detailed, accurate data on the economic situation do not exist, the GNP per capita is below the estimated national average of U.S.$260, and is lower still in the riverine and coastal areas. Unemployment is at least 30 percent and education levels are below the national average.

There is a contrast between the commodious lifestyle of oil company staff and the near impecunious  standing of the oil-producing  communities.  The readily available and functiona

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nature of social amenities in the oil company’s staff quarters and the lack of these amenities in the slums is enough to arouse conflict in the area,  as acknowledged by Eyinla and Ukpo (2006).

Oil and gas activities have greatly affected the economy and socio-economic conditions of  the  communities,   with  the  depletion  of  fishing  and  aquatic  resources,  depletion  and degradation of forest resources, agricultural land instability, poor sanitation, air pollution, and ground water pollution (Niger Delta Environmental Survey, 2003 and Niger Delta Development Corporation, 2001).

Since the discovery of oil, conflicts have become more and more pervasive across the Niger Delta. The oil is now a curse to the people. The conflict in the Niger Delta had its roots in the increasing protests of the region’s communities against their political, economic and environmental disenfranchisement. The region’s goals included increased local control over resources  and  more  equitable  development.  They  also  sought  the  resolution  of  fishing  and farming issues that arose from the environmental effects of oil extraction, such as oil spills, acid rain and soil degradation. Protection  of human  rights became another  demand  after peaceful protests by the Ogoni people were met with arrests, repression, and violence from the military.

Lack of proper information and research makes it difficult to evaluate the overall contribution of hydrocarbon pollution to declining fish catch. In individual cases, however, oil spills kill large numbers of fish in small areas, while spills in the open sea or in large creeks in tidal areas disperse fairly quickly and oil spilled in freshwater swamps also affects fishponds in forest areas (Douglas, 2013). The effect of these spills can destroy much of the livelihood  for those in the affected freshwater swamp, where fishing areas and fishponds belong to a particular family.

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The oil-producing communities are today in the middle of a conflagration arising from conflicts.  These  are  due  to  drastic  changes  in  the  environment  of  the  communities  from exploration and exploitation of oil deposits in the area and alienation of the people from all rights to participate in discussions concerning their land, divergent opinions of the people and the oil companies,  ego  of one  community  feeling  superior  to the  other  oil-producing  communities. (Ugboma, 2008). Ugboma (2009) also revealed that oil-related activities have brought with them the politics  of oil and thishas  ignited  and exacerbated  oil-related  conflicts  in the oil-bearing areas. According to Nnoli (1998) and Anatsui (2007) such failure results from the inability of conflicting units to accept the arrangements and procedures that have been adopted to manage the conflict  and  information  gap. Causes  of conflict  in the communities  range  from  intense competition  for  political  office,  economic  stagnation,  hopelessness,  oil revenue  and  pipeline vandalization by impoverished youths. Other causes are broken promises, federal government’s neglect  of  the  area  and  the  lack  of  information  infrastructure.Misconceptions, misinformation,and misunderstanding due to boundary disputes, illiteracy, poor educational background and the way information is disseminated to the oil-producing communities are also likely causes of conflicts in the area.

Conflicts can be multi-dimensional and communal conflicts can take the form of conflict within the communities, conflict between communities, and conflict between host communities and the oil companies.  The intra-  and inter-communal  conflict  is usually oil-induced.  While territorial disputes in the area predate the discovery of oil, the presence of oil has exacerbated political disputes over territory or other rights. Local elite in these oil producing communities have reacted violently against the state and oil companies through social movements, conflicts and the use of militia tactics. They organize their movements to challenge an inequitable transfer

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of oil resources in their communities to the detriment of the local people in the region (Akinwale,

2009). As a result, conflicts have led to hundreds losing their lives in these conflicts across the communities (Douglas, 2013 and Obe, 2004).

The study focuses on three communities  where conflicts have been acute in Kegbara- Dere, Gbaranmatu and Peremabiri.

Kegbara-Dere, a community in Ogoni land, according to Human Rights Watch (2004) has had several conflictsover the degradation on their land by Shell. The Ogoni people grew increasingly dissatisfied  with  the  way their  environmental,  social,  and  economic  apparatus  were  rapidly deteriorating in the communities. The situation was very terrible with several oil spills that had destroyed so much aquatic life, gas flaring that had also destroyed crops, especially cassava that had been planted by the people, and the lack of compensation from the oil companies involved in oil exploration in the area. This led to the formation of the Movement for the Survival of the

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Ogoni People (MOSOP)  in 1992by Ogoni playwright and author Ken Saro-Wiwa. In December

1992, the conflict  between  Ogonis  and  the  oil  producing  companies  escalated  and  MOSOP issued an ultimatum to the oil companies comprising Shell, Chevron, and the Nigerian National Petroleum  Corporation    demanding  the  payment  of    $10  billion  in  accumulated  royalties, damages and compensation,   the “immediate stoppage of environmental degradation”, and  the negotiations for mutual agreement on all future drilling.

Gbaranmatu conflict started    from 1993 due to criminality, kidnappings and killings by militants  in Gbaranmatu.   The militants  had been taking part in illegal bunkering,  operating illegal refineries, vandalising oil pipelines, kidnapping and piracy. Tompolo and other militants who  startedthe  Movement  of  the  Emancipation  of  the  Niger  Delta  ordered  oil  companies operating  in  the  region  to  evacuate  their  employees  and  shut  down  operations  due  to  the degradation of their environment. They engaged troops of the Joint Task Force in a fierce battle and in the process four Ijaw communities were attacked, and destroyed; namely Oporoza, Kunukunuma, Okerenkoko and Gbaranmatu  (Amaize, 2009)

Pereamabiri conflict   was as a result of inferno caused by several oil spills from Shell pipelines which destroyed   about 200,000 hectares of rice farmlands.(Oyadongha,  2009) Other conflicts  are due to change  of leadership  of the community leaders,   unfulfilled  promises  of militant warlords on payments of stipends.The conflicts in these communities have affected their communities, states and the nation (Oyadongha, 2009).

There is consensus  among  scholars  on the inevitability of conflict  in relations  among human beings (Weeks, 1992). It is even regarded   as ‘an essential creative element in human relations, the means to change and the means by which some social values of welfare, security, justice and opportunities for personal development can be achieved; as opined by Burton (1987).

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There  is however  another  aspect  of conflict,  which  is the destructive  dimensions  of violent conflict, and it is generally agreed that whether or not a conflict plays a positive or negative role is essentially a matter of how it is managed and resolved. The effectiveness of how conflict is managed is itself largely dependent on how well the causes of the conflict have been understood.

Conflicts are contradictions  arising from differences  in the interests, ideas, ideologies, orientations  and  precipitous  tendencies  of  the  people  concerned.  These  contradictions  are inherent  at  all  levels  of  social  and  economic  interaction  of  the  human  race.  Conflict  may therefore exist at the individual, group, institutional, regional, national and international levels. It is thus a pervasive phenomenon in human relationships and has been seen as the ‘basic unit for understanding  social existence’.  The management  of conflicts  helps  to push society towards enhanced humanity. Conflicts are inevitable in human affairs, but if carefully handled, they can lead to social and economic progress. When conflicts are unmanaged, they are allowed to linger and explode into violence, and thus become undesirable and may develop into a menace. Violent conflict is therefore the consequence  or the inability or failure to accommodate  and  manage conflicts in society through arrangements and procedures that eliminate their negative effects and maximize their positive effect.

There are three types of conflict: interpersonal conflict, which is a type of conflict that occur between two persons; intrapersonal, which is a conflict that happens within an individual’s personality related to his emotional, intellectual and moral being; and intragroup conflict, which happens when individuals in a group struggle against society or a social force and conditions produced  by society such as poverty, political revolution, social conventions  or set of values (Sullivan nd). Thus when accurate information is disseminated, people will be well informed of

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the conflict management procedures, and this will eliminate any bias and mistrust among parties that are involved in the conflict.

Information is a knowledge communicated about facts, subjects and events that is capable of reducing uncertainty. There are different types of information, some information deals with the practicalities of every day life such as telephone numbers, advice from individuals, peoples experience,   gossip, news that deals with the latest information  about a particular subject  or object, ideas and opinions, which deals with what people think about a problem are all types of information. Others are theoretical analysis of a problem, which is the theoretical perspective of a matter by people, maps and timetables of people and organizations. Facta and figures that deals with  how  many    cases  happened,  history,  research  results,  technical  and  legal  information, Safari( nd).

For information to be useful to the recipient, it must have certain characteristics and meet certain  criteria.  Information  must  be valid,  reliable,  timely,  fit  for  purpose,  accessible,  cost effective, sufficiently accurate, understandable. It must be from a reliable source, have the right level of details and be relevant. (Content writer 2013). Information plays a very important role in almost every human activity; its value in the development process has been a topic of extensive debate and its dissemination is vital in prevention and management of conflicts. It is an important ingredient in conflicts and during post-conflict situations (Echezona, 2009). When information is used in conflicts, it can be used as a safety measure, to inform conflict victims of when it is safe to return to their communities, and it will inform conflict victims of where they can access relief materials from the government, receive medical care and compensation, if any is available. Not only does information  expand  the possibilities  of social,  political,  educational  and economic

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development of any country, but it also facilitates awareness and empowerment. Information is an asset and a resource for development of communities, governments, agencies, and the target population.

Accurate information plays a very important role in rumor control and can correct misinformation.  Information  is  useful  in  the  prevention  and  early  warning  for  deescalating violence for reconciliation, peace-building efforts and the prevention of a cycle of violence from reoccurring  (Scutari,  2004).  It helps  to remove  doubts  and  suspicion  and  contributes  to the promotion of harmony, process of confidence building and attainment of peace for the smoother management of a conflict. Simply disseminating information in conflicts is inadequate; the information should be properly disseminated for it to be able to rebut misinformation (Burgress

& Maiese, 2004). The information must be accurate, truthful, timely, objective, convincing and credible. It should be for moulding and influencing human behavior, attitude and orientation.

The  availability  of  information  in  the  society  fosters  meaningful  social  awareness, cohesion and integration for a more productive public life. No wonder Tise (2007) states that information famine stifles Africa’s growth. Similarly, Dike (2010) maintained that the position of nations, their power, and influence, increasingly depend on their access to and ability to use information. A nation’s development is hinged on the progress and productivity of the citizenry. It is therefore mandatory that the citizens of a nation are well informed of their rights, obligations and privileges, so as to maintain peace and settle disputes amicably.  Oyegade (2000) emphasizes that information is the most singular variable that differentiates and determines if a country is in the first, second, third or fourth world. Information is considered a basic condition for economic development,  together  with  capital,  labor  and  raw  materials.  Nations  that  have  access  to information have the most economic, political power and prestige. Ononogbo (2003) states tha

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information reduces uncertainty, while improving the accuracy of decisions. Its absence means policy mistake,  educational  disputes,  slower productivity  growth,  which  affects  the quantity, success  and  effectiveness  of public  policy.  Etim  (2010)  opines  that  the  way information  is provided and disseminated has preoccupied man since ancient times. Development is hinged on the progress and productivity of the citizenry. It is also a vital asset to national security, because it  can  create  diplomatic  opportunities,  lessen  tensions  that  might  lead  to  war,  help  curtail conflicts, control damages and address nontraditional threats to a nation’s interests.  As opined by Ikeje (2012) scarcity   of information puts the rumor- mill and tale bearers to work, which brings distraction to the people of a country.

In view of the importance of information, the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in article 19 states that: “Everyone has a right to freedom of opinion and expression. This includes freedom to hold opinions without interference and to seek, receive and impart information and ideas through any media regardless of frontiers”. The Freedom of Information (FOI) Act was passed into law by the president, Goodluck Jonathan and according to Otodo (2011), endorsing the people’s right to information available in a community leverages the quality of their participation  in public affairs. The Act states that extreme secrecy in governance  and a poor information flow breeds suspicion and misunderstanding among the populace and prevents the necessary cooperation for development’. Idowu (2011) states that the FOI act seeks to reorient public officers to appreciate the new reality that information is a developmental tool that must be freely available. Internet-based tools like e-mail, blogs, and text-messaging have also changed the way information is shared and managed during conflicts; it can enable communities to voice their perspectives and preserve documents with modern technology for the future generations, which may help to diffuse and manage  conflicts (Scutari, 2004).

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People need adequate and accurate information about their   rights and obligations, information  on  various  oil acts,  land  use  acts,  conflict  management  and    resolution,  in the Nigerian constitution, oil company operations, social responsibilities of oil companies and compensation  to  the  host  community.  This  helps  to  enlighten  and  educate  them  on  issues relevant to their lives and society at large. This information is needed to fight for economic and political  emancipation.   Accurate  information   can  be  used  to  inform  people  of  dangers, demonstrate  safe behavior and create support for communities  and leaders. It is also used to create legal and social environments to support conflict victims. These information sources will only be useful when they are properly disseminated, available, accessible, accurate and timely (Ugboma, 2008).

Information is also important in building a strong interactive civil society and democratic process (Opara, 2011). Lack of information  and unclear information  hinder development  and agitate violence, especially in relatively new democratic governments such as the case in Nigeria (Echezona,  2009).  According  to Nyamboga  and  Kiplang  (2008)  there  is   a widely believed concept that some conflicts arise because there is a deficiency of information, whether within given societies or between societies. According to Odiegwu (2013) the government of Bayelsa state has criminalized rumor mongering in the state; the governor stated it was imperative to make  such law in the state in view of the ever  increasing  rate of rumor  mongering  and  its consequences   in  the  state.     Anatsui  (2007)  states  that  most  conflicts  are  caused  by  a communication gap,. cases of misinformation, wrong information, missing information, rumors, hearsay enhance disparity in opinions and create social inequalities among peoples, organizations and nations. Situations where the government is far away from its citizenry and unable to effectively    inform    the    people    are    bound    to    cause    misconception,    misperception,

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misrepresentation, gossip, and rumors. Conflicts cannot be managed when information preserved and managed employs falsehoods, half-truths and deception.

Parties’ ability to deal constructively with conflict is determined by how well information has been managed in the past and how well they understand the situation. A history of secrecy and deception  makes  it more  difficult  for parties  to understand  who  else is involved  in the conflict,  what they are doing, and why.  According  to Burgess  and Maise (2004) one of the ingredients of civil disorders is that misinformation is going around, causing fear in the minds of people while they pick up bits and pieces of information and spread them, thus causing rumors that are destructive. According to Burgess and Maise (2004) among parties engaged in intense conflicts,  there is typically little direct formal communication  or sharing of information;  this could cause a gap in knowledge or communication that is filled with representation and contains serious inaccuracies that are likely to cause conflict. They went further to state that such communications are called rumors and are most times spread through the television, radio, newspapers, and the internet.

In addition, rumors may erode the parties’ mutual trust and make it more difficult for them  to  move  towards  peace.  A proliferation  of negative  rumors  increases  the chances  that parties will develop worst-case view of one another, which in turn may result in polarization, dehumanization band violence. Thus, rumors often serve to escalate conflicts and in potentially dangerous  ways  as  was  the  case  in  1994,  when  Radio  Milles  Collines  in  Rwanda  incited genocide by employing metaphors and hate speech. Serbian state broadcasting during the 1995 and 1999 Balkan conflicts was almost equally infamous. Incompetent journalism and partisan news can generate misinformation which inflames xenophobia, ethnic hatred, class warfare and violent  conflict  in  almost  any  fragile  state.  The  anti-Thai  violence  in  Cambodia  in  2003,

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triggered entirely by partisan media, is a more recent example. Radio Netherlands’ website on counteracting  hate  media  indicates  that  hate  radio  is  currently  operating  on  five  continents (Howard, 2009)

Access to and the utilization of information sources by all the key players in communal conflict is a prerequisite for any conflict management procedure to be successful.Communities involved in conflict should make good use of information sources from a mass of data, reports of commission  of enquiry,  court proceedings,  oral history,  folklores,  and music. They can also exhaust information from traditional, scientific and legal sources Okiki (2008).

Management relates to the application of technical, human and conceptual skills in the manipulation,  control  and  utilization  of resources  of men  and  materials  to accomplish  some specified ends. If a conflict is well managed to the mutual satisfaction of the parties concerned, it can lead to some qualitative development in the relationship between communities. (Imobighe,

2008)

Conflict management efforts seek to eliminate the conditions that create an environment for conflict by developing early warning systems. Conflict management measures are needed for conflicts  to be properly managed.  These  measures  include  the establishment  of a behavioral code, confidence-building,  cooperative ventures  or integrative activities and the promotion  of democracy in the communities concerned. (Imobighe, 1997). Effective conflict management by government to its citizenry is key to the attainment of developmental goals and the establishment and consolidation of democracy. It is also a vital asset to national security, because it can create diplomatic opportunities,  lessen tensions that might lead to war, help curtail conflicts, control damages and address nontraditional threats to a nation’s interests (Best, 2004).

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Conflict management should be seen as a process that will equip all to be prepared and assist in the prevention and mitigation of conflicts (Echezona, 2008).   Inger (1991) states that conflict management     consisted constructive approaches to the limitation, mitigation, and containment of conflicts that help people work together to arrive at mutually acceptable compromise solutions. He goes further to state that the main idea is to allow people or nations to solve differences peacefully in ways that allow for everyone to accept the strategies that have been adopted in managing the conflict.

Oil-producing communities in the Niger Delta have attempted to manage conflicts in the region through several measures such as funding, the use of the military, the approval of concessions from oil and the provision of infrastructure to oil-producing communities. (Onosode,

2003). These strategies have resulted in popular demands for political empowerment, mitigation of environmental  degradation, resource control and sustainable development,  but this has not brought lasting solutions to the problem (Oshagae 1998). However, a neglected factor maybe information and information management in conflict situations(Ugboma, 2008), hence the need to provide a historical perspective of the role information has played in conflict management with a view of providing insights on ways of managing these conflicts in the Niger Delta.

Statement of the Problem

The oil-producing communities have been plagued with conflicts that have attracted international  attention  since  the  Ogoni  conflicts  in  1992,  and  these  have  led to  the  rise  of thousands of active and armed militants, numerous cases of kidnapping and a large number of casualties.  Conflict  in the oil- producing  communities  has led to dire consequences  such as serious health challenges and hazards, political instability and violence, communal clashes, kidnapping  of  oil  workers,  militancy  and  even  death.  The  Nigerian  government  has  tried

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different  methods  of managing and ending conflict in these communities,  including the 13% derivation funds to oil producing states, amnesty and economic empowerment to people from the region.  None  of  these  efforts  have  succeeded  in  managing,  resolving  or  bringing  a  lasting solution to conflicts in the area.

However, a neglected factor might be that information has not been effectively used in the past to influence the lives and behaviour of the oil companies and the oil producing communities. The study therefore seeks to improve the situation in the region by investigating the role information has played in the past conflicts and conflict  management  of the selected communities from 1992-2013 using the historical research design. The study seeks to highlight the importance of information, and how itcan be used as an important resource to resolve and manage conflicts in the region if used effectively in the future.

Purpose of the Study

The general purpose of the study is to explore the role information has played in conflict management in the selected oil- producing communities ofthe Niger-Delta. The specific purposes of the study are:

1)  To identify theconflicts in the selected oil producing communities of the Niger-Delta from

1992-2013.

2)  To identify the role information  has played in past conflicts in the selected oil producing communities of  the Niger Delta from 1992-2013.

3)  To ascertain the information sources used in conflict and conflict management in the selected oil producing communities from 1992-2013.

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4)  To examine the factors militating against effective information use in the past conflicts ofthe selected oil producing communities of the Niger-Delta from 1992-2013.

5)  To suggest strategies that could be used to enhance information in conflict management of the selected oil producing communities of the Niger Delta.

Research Questions

The following research questions were formulated to guide the study:

1)  What are the conflicts in the selected oil producing communities  of the Niger Delta from

1992-2013?

2)  What  are  the  roles  information  played  in  these  conflicts  in  the  selected  oil-producing communities from 1992-2013?

3)  What were the information sources used in conflict management in the selected oil producing communities from 1992-2013?

4)  What were the factors militating against effective information use in the past conflicts of the selected oil-producing communitiesfrom 1992-2013?

5)  What are the strategies that could be used to enhance information in conflict management in the selected oil-producing communities of the Niger Delta?

Significance of the Study

The findings of the research are expected to be useful to the following; the oil producing communities,  oil  producing  companies,  youth,  militants,  stakeholders  in  the  oil  industry, Amnesty   International,  non governmental  organization’s, lecturers, civil society, Niger Delta Development   Commission,   Federal   Government,   mass   media,   librarians,   historians   and information practitioners.

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The oil-producing  communities,  especially the chiefs, will find the work useful because they serve as a medium of disseminating information to their people from the oil companies. The work will assist them to use  the most effective strategies, which the people prefer. They can also tap  into  the  new  strategies  discussed  in  the  study  for  disseminating  timely  and  relevant information to their people to curb conflicts in their communities.

The youth and militants of the Niger Delta will benefit from the results of the study. The study will assist them to be enlightened by the positive and negative roles information has played in past conflicts. Information when used positively will lead to development and peace, while when used negatively will lead to serious consequences such destruction of communities, loss of lives and properties. The study will educate them on how to liaise with the youth body or council of their communities on ways they can better their lives and avoid conflicts in their respective communities.

The oil companies will benefit from the study if they implement the strategies of disseminating timely and accurate information to the people. When the people living in the oil communities are well informed, there will be less friction between the oil companies and the communities.

Government  agencies,  Ministry of the Niger  Delta and the Niger  Delta Development Commission will also benefit.The findings of the study will serve as a yardstick to government agencies to measure how far they have performed in providing information infrastructure to the communities covered, since the communities lack electricity, communication infrastructure, including information centres. It will assist them to add the communities ib their budgets, so they can provide all these amenities to them, since such provisions can lead to peace.

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Amnesty International and other non governmental organizations such as MOSOP will acquire  insight  on  how  to  resolve  oil-related  conflicts,  by studying  the  situations  in  other communities  and  countries.  The work  will  enlighten  them of new  strategies  of empowering conflict communities to transform conflict and to help conflict victims to establish a culture of active tolerance and peace that have been used in the past and how conflicts have been managed in other countries through the use of the right strategy.

Librarians, historians and civil society organizations will also benefit. The results of the study will benefit  them in the areas of information  repackaging into the local languages  and keeping records of past conflict management strategies so that other communities will be able to benefit from them. It will also benefit them for further research because there are other conflict prone communities in other regions of Nigeria. The strategies suggested in this work will assist them to maintain peace in their different communities.

Finally, the result of the study will be beneficial to researchers who will want to carry out similar  studies  in  other  oil  producing  communities  of  the  Niger  Delta.  They  can  use  the procedures adopted in the study to carry out their own research.

Scope of the Study

The scope of the study is the selected  oil-producing  communities  of the Niger Delta, which have been the focus of conflict. These areGbaranmatu  in Delta state, Kegbara-Dere  in Rivers state andPeremabiri in Bayelsa state of the Niger Delta. The time frame for the study is

1992-2013. Sources used for the study are documents andrespondents from the communities and other stakeholders.

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